History of Ethiopian Society Chapter 3 PDF

Chapter-3: History of Ethiopian Society History of Ethiopia State Some have divided the political history of Ethiopian society and/or state into four 1. Prehistoric 2. Medieval Period 3. Early Modern Times 4. Modern Times Based on: Relationship between the state and civil society and pro...

Chapter-3: History of Ethiopian Society History of Ethiopia State Some have divided the political history of Ethiopian society and/or state into four 1. Prehistoric 2. Medieval Period 3. Early Modern Times 4. Modern Times Based on: Relationship between the state and civil society and processes of modernization. 1. Prehistoric Emergence of States in Ethiopia  One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.  State refers to an autonomous political unit having  Population  defined territory  sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws.  State was the outcome of regular cultural process.  The first states were theocratic states and  Priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of their people.  As production became market oriented, Chiefs, began collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as protection payments  It helps They maintained themselves; Their supporters chiefly the army, The bureaucracy and other followers.  Ethiopia is one of the country in Africa, where early state formation took place. Ancient States in North and Northeast A. Punt B. Da’amat  C. The Aksumite State D. Zagwe Dynasty Punt B. Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia. C. The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic that tells of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. A. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) B. Pharaoh Asosi C. Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.) D. Based on this evidences punt was the most important sources of myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy), frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. E. Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. F. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. G. Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. H. It was suggested that may be punt is located in A. Northern Ethiopia and B. stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Bab-el Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea  The center of Da’amat was located south of Aksum.  They used politico religious title known as Mukarib based on 5th c B. C inscription.  Various gods and goddesses were worshipped in Da’amat and pre-Aksumite cultural centers.  There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time. Major cultural centers in Northern Ethiopia A. Yeha  The oldest   Emerged around 1, 000 BC  Located northeast of Aksum B. Hawulti Melazo: Situated to southeast of Aksum C. Addi-Seglemeni: Located to Southwest of Aksum  There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. C. The Aksumite State  The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.  In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.  Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum.  The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such as  Ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon),  Gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes. In turn, a number of manufactured products like Garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia;  Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places;  Metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria were imported.  Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.  Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.  From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions.  Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world   Roman Empire  Persia  China  Aksum) at the time.  It was a major naval and trading power from the 1st to the 7th c. The decline of Aksumite state  The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and external challenges.  Factors for its decline  Environmental degradation  decline in agricultural productivity and  Plague infestation started to weaken it  With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702 Aksumite international trade came under the control Arab Muslims, and  Aksumite state was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners.  Due to this the Aksumite state declined economically, politically and militarily.  Internally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions.  The recurring rebellions of  the Beja,  the Agaw and  Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state. Contribution of Aksumite state  Aksumite civilization had a profound impact upon the on its successors such as the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period  Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and calendar  EOC hymns, chants and paintings  Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving,  Urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…)  It also developed complex administrative and governance system   Agricultural system including irrigation Zagwe Dynasty  The founder of the Zagwe dynasty is known as Merra-Tekle-Haimanot.  Merra-Tekle-Haimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.  Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.  The Zagwe served as soldiers and functionaries as the Aksumites state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the present day Wag.  After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class,  They successfully took over the state administration.  The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).  The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from the highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom  In the north down to northern Shewa  In the south; the Lake Tana region and  In the west Gojjam, Bazamo present day Wellega  The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.  Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.  The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels,  Various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.  The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.  Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of  Cave  semi-hewn  monolithic churches The decline of the Zagwe Dynasty 1. Internal problems of royal succession  2. Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.  Zagwe kings were considered as “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba.  “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.  Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od defeated and killed the last Zagwe king Yitbarek.  Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty 2. The Medieval Period  The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last Aksumite king and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power.  As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in quotation mark.  The name “Solomonic” also is in quotation marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom  From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.  Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.  However, it gradually shifted southward.  After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority throughout the empire  Yikuno-Amlak subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa.  Until the coming of Amde-Tsion, the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, Medieval Amhara and Shewa.  Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion.  His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. To control the trade routes and territorial seizures  Witnessed the expansion of trade leading to the flow of commodities to the coast following the major routes  In the process of consolidating his power Amde- Tsion  subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies.  In the process, he expanded his territory into  Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4  Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7  Bete-Israel (located b/n Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332 and  The Red Sea Coast and  Eritrea  In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom.  In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence.  Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. 2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States A. Bizamo  It was located on the southern bend of Abay around the Wambara area.  It was founded in the 18th c and had early connections with Damot. B. Damot  It was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands to south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. C. Enarya  It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.  The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).   Enarya kingship was a divine one  The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).  The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi. 3. Muslim Sultanates A. Shewa  Founded by Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca  He set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D on northeastern foothill of Shewa. B. Fatagar  was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11th c.  It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and  Extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats. C. Dawaro  Located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.  They have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place. D. Bali  It was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.  Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.  Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. E. Ifat  Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.  It was established by Umar Walasma  The sultanate was fertile and well watered.  Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet.   Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Solomonic  From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.  Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.  However, it gradually shifted southward.  1520 Imam Ahmed refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.  The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and putting the Dynasty at risk.  In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and encamped about 50 kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. On the part of the Solomonic dynasity, the military set back forced the reigning king, Lebne- Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive. His son Gelawdewos (r. 1540- 1559), continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers.  In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541, led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.  On the part of the Solomonic dynasty , preparations were made for final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), supported by Seblewongel’s advice.  Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.  Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they did not know where the attacks came from.  On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.  The king restored possession of almost all the northern and central plateau  Tolerant to Muslims to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth relations with the Muslim world.  Was able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories and tributary regions.   The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.  Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.  After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of falling apart.  Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who countered the Catholic transformation.  Fasiledas introduced reforms such as  Restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion  Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ uncle and the most fervent/ardent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos  Introduced a new policy called "Close-Door Policy", by fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas which isolated the state from all Europeans for about a century and a half.  Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states. People, and nations in ethiopia  Peoples and States in the East (Somali, Afar, Argoba, and the Emirate of Harar)  Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts (the oromo, The Kingdom of Shewa, Gurage, Kambata, and Hadiya)  Peoples and States in the South (Sidama, Gedeo, and Konso)  Peoples and States in Southwestern Part (Wolayta, Kafa, Yem, Gamo, Dawuro, and Ari)  Peoples and States in the West (Berta and Gumuz, Anywa, Nuer, Majang, and The Kunama) The Oromo  A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of the 16th and 17th c  Natural factors   Demographic pressure and  The need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.  Man made factors  The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates 16th c might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.  In 1522, when the population movement began,  The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.  When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa, they took westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest.  Then they headed northwards to the lakes region of the Rift Valley. Somali  The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn.  For long, the Somali practiced pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient pasture.  The Somali lived south of their present territory at least as early as the 12th c or 13th c.  Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis together during the 13th c.  The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian Kingdom.  Somali contingents also played notable role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the Christian kingdom. Afar  The Afar predominantly have lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea.  The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy.  The Afar people were first mentioned by Ibn Said under the name "Danakil".  During the 13th c, they occupied the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb.  Argoba  There are two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba.  The first version  They descended from the eighty-two followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.  The second version  It claims that the Argoba as an ancient and indigenous people who accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia. The Emirate of Harar  Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn.  In the 16th c, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo.  Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527.  Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of the Harari develop. The Kingdom of Shewa  The Kingdom of Shewan was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat.  The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Gurage  The Gurage live in southern Ethiopia. The main Gurage clans and their sub-divisions are the following  Inor group (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna, Gyeto and Mesemes)  Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and Gura) and  Kistane group (Nurana and many other clans).  Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.  The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.  The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries.  However, there was no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups.  The descent groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence. Gurage’s notable customary modes of governance include the Yajoka Qicha and the Gordanna Sera. Kambata  By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in).  The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory.  The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highland.  At the end of the 16th c, the groups were recognized as and conscious of the name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region.  The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.  The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The council had seven members each re presenting the seven clans in the region. With a king at the top, the council ruled Kambata until the late 19th c. Hadiya  The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the 13th c.  It was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the federation of Zeila.  The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.  Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities.  There was a considerable Muslim population.  From the 13th c to the 16th , Hadiya’s political importance was considerable with sizable population and vast territory.  In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434- 68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.  To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage.  Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an important historical figure, married Emperor Zara Yaqob.  However, descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters:  The Sidama  The Kabena & Alaba, and  The Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho  The Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family. Sidama  Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia  Agriculture remained the basis of Sidama’s economy.  Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash crops respectively.  The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).  The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders called Songo.  Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval.  Although there was no written constitution, rules were known by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.  The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma.  He was selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.  He could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace.  He handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits.  He also performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage. Gedeo  The dominant tradition about the origin of Gedeo relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso.  Clan were assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional medicine or leadership.  Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a very close language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset. Konso  The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land.  Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.  Konso’s economy also depended on bee keeping and craftworks.  Until the late 19th c, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) which were further divided into wards called Kanta.  There was no central authority who acted as sovereign power over the three regions. Wolayta  The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful kingdom, which first emerged in 13th c.  The state flourished in the late 18th and early 19th c because of successful wars that the Wolayta fought against their neighbors and the material, human and territorial gains thereof.  At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors.  From 13th to late 19th , two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta  The Wolayta-Malla and  The Tigre  Founded in the 13th by Motalami, The Wolayta-Malla have ruled until the end of 15th c.  It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.  The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation cover for the most part of the year.  All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to his dependents.  In practice, land relationships were ordered according to three basic principles of social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status. Kafa  This powerful kingdom emerged 14th and around mid 17th, the state had come to prominence.  The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact.  The Oromo expansion might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.  Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade.  At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast.  The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.  The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier.  The Gojeb also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have contributed to their relative independence until 1897. Yem  The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa kingdom.  Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.  Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain. Gamo  Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and beyond.  Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two:  The geze (highland) and  The bazo (lowland)  The highlands were densely populated while people who escaped coercion by the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also served as hunting fields.  A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the Gamo highlands.  The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.  Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food, farming and manure, which they needed for successful agriculture.  Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system. Dawuro  Dawuro’s topography is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins.  The land is divided into three climatic zones. These are  geziya (highland)  dashuwa (mid-altitude) and  gad’a (lowland)  Such climatic conditions enriched Dawuro with a variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest.  The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural activities.  The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family. Ari  The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times.  These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc.  Major economic activities in the region were  Sedentary agriculture  Pastoralism and  Handcrafts  The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language family.  The society was organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms.  Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these chiefdoms.  The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual authorities over the people of his respective domain.   The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed prominent figures in the administration of the political unit.  The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi) Peoples and States in the West Berta and Gumuz  The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates from the 16th c.  The Berta people speak the Berta language as their mother tongue.  It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-Saharan linguistic group.  In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the Gumuz.  They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce. He notes that they hunted with bows and arrows, a custom that survives today. Anywa  Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-day Gambella region.  The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language family.  The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community.  Economically, they are engaged in smallscale cultivation, fishing and hunting. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint The Gondarine Period Political Developments  The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.  Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political seat there.  Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors:  Fasiledas (r.1632–67)  Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and   Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706)  Among the major reforms during these periods were  The restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,  The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems stemming from power rivalry  Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem  His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system  Introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder  Taxes, and customs, and  Revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code)  The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son, Tekle Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarchs.  This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855). Achievements of the Gondarine Period  Architecture  Painting  Literature  Trade and Urbanization The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)  Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political power was in the hands of different regional lords.  The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.  The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.  When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debretabor.  Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:  Absence of effective central government   The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;  Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker  Establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests  Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy” The Early Modern Times Tewodros II  Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, Yejju dynasty, Ras Gugsa of Begemidir and other Shewan prices and nobles were major opponents. Tewodros II began modernizing Ethiopia and recentralizing power in the Emperor And Ethiopia began to take part in world affairs once again Tewodros suffered several rebellions inside his empire Tigrean rebellion and the constant incursion of Ottoman Empire and Egyptian forces near the Red Sea Brought the weakening and the final downfall of Emperor Tewodros II The 1880s were marked by the Berlin Conference and modernization in Ethiopia Asseb, a port bought in March 1870 from the local Afar sultan by Italian company Which by 1890 led to the Italian colony of Eritrea the Battle of Adwa in 1896 led to Italy and Ethiopia signed a provisional treaty of peace. 1880s and 1990s, Sahle Selassie, king of Shewa, and later as Emperor Menelik II, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east He also opened the country to Western influence and technology by built diplomatic and railway from Addis Ababa to Djibouti Following Zewditu’s death, Haile Selassie reign as emperor of Ethiopia in November 1930  Most influential in the nation’s history and seen by Rastafarians as Jah incarnate  He played a leading role in the formation of African Unity.  Independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1936- 1941)  Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations in 1935  In 1935 Time magazine called him ‘Man of the Year’   Italians never controlled large parts of the countryside and at times ruled harshly Nonetheless:  Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters liberated Ethiopia  After WW II, Haile Selassie pursued a policy of centralization  He also continued to introduce change in areas such as  public education,  the army, and government administration Although Haile Selassie was seen as a national hero, Ethiopia turned against him owing to the worldwide oil crisis of 1973, Food shortages, Uncertainty regarding the succession, Border wars, and Discontent in the middle class created through modernization. Finally, Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta, the "Derg" led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, He established a one party communist state which was called People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The Modern Time 1. The Military Regime  pursued a socialist agenda but governed in military style,  looked to the Soviet Union as a model and for military support  regime suffered several coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and a huge refugee problem  Nationalized rural and urban land devised controversial policy of villagization  In 1977, there was the Ogaden War   Military aid from the USSR, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany and North Korea, including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. The Red Terror was carried out in response to what the government termed "White Terror", Resistance against the Derg arose in all parts of the country, most notably in the north. The beginning of 1980s, famines affected around 8 million people &1 million dead. Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) pursued a campaign against the 1962 annexation And eventually sought separation from Ethiopia. Tigray Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) sought regional autonomy (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements overthrow of the Derg Soviet Union began to retreat from building World Communism under Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika policies This make a dramatic reduction in aid to Ethiopia from Socialist bloc countries This resulted in even more economic hardship and the collapse of the military 2. The EPRDF Regime  Transitional Government of Ethiopia, composed of an 87-member Council was formed  guided by a national charter used as a transitional constitution  In 1994, a new constitution was written that formed a bicameral legislature & In 1993 a referendum held Over 99% of the Eritrean people voted for independence EPRDF committed itself to multi-party democracy The economy relied on international donor assistance In May 1998, a border dispute led to the Ethio-Eritrea war  This hurt the nation’s economy, but strengthened the ruling coalition A. Politics and Governance   Federal parliamentary republic  Prime Minister is the head of government  Executive power is exercised by the government  Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the Judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature. It enshrines the separation of church and state Guarantees that all Ethiopian languages will enjoy equal state recognition but Amharic The government has three branches 1. Legislative (made up of a bicameral parliament) 2. Executive includes (president, prime minister, Council of State, and Council of Ministers) 3. Judicial branch is composed of federal and state courts Before 1996, Ethiopia was divided into 13 provinces in 2004, the United States Department of State reported that the judiciary remains weak and overburdened political parties are predominantly ethnically based TPLF was and remains the dominant member Mass media in Ethiopian political seen has been very far from being controversial Radio and TV under the control of government Since 1991 private newspapers and magazines appear Despite heavy-handed regulation, continues to grow Let us turn to Ethiopian foreign relations Ethiopia is a member of:  League of Nations (UN)  African Union  UN Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa)  participated in UN missions in Korea and Congo   Recently, in Burundi, Liberia, and Rwanda Ethiopia is a member of the following organizations for international cooperation:  Inter-Governmental Authority on Development  International Civil Aviation Organization  International Criminal Police Organization  International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies  International Fund for Agricultural Development  International Labor Organization  Non-aligned Movement  Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons  United Nations  UNESCO & United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees  World Health Organization), and the World Trade Organization