SYSTEMATIC LECTURE SLIDE PDF

Introduction to Systematics  The Science of Systematics Definition ◦ from the latinized Greek word “systema” (organized whole) as applied to systems of classification developed by early naturalists, notably Carolus Linnaeus (1735, Systema naturae) ◦ according to G. G. Simpson (196...

Introduction to Systematics  The Science of Systematics Definition ◦ from the latinized Greek word “systema” (organized whole) as applied to systems of classification developed by early naturalists, notably Carolus Linnaeus (1735, Systema naturae) ◦ according to G. G. Simpson (1961) -- it is the scientific study of the kinds & diversity of organisms & of any & all relationships (all biological interactions) among them  *simply, it is the science of the diversity of organisms  Broad overlap in the terms systematics & taxonomy in dealing w/ the diversity & uniqueness of life; but there is also subtle difference. Taxonomy ---derived from Greek word “taxis” (arrangement) & “nomos” (law) - first proposed in its French form by de Candolle (1813) for the Theory of Plant Classification  Taxonomy - simply, the theory & practice of classifying organisms -has 2 divisions: 1. classification ---arrangement of the kinds of organisms from smaller to larger groups 2. nomenclature --- procedure of assigning names to the kinds & groups of organisms to be classified Scope of Systematics 1. Deals w/ populations, species, & higher taxa - supplies needed information about these levels - cultivates: -- a way of thinking -- a way of approaching biological problems important for the balance & well-being of biology as a whole 2. Using comparative method, it determines: a. what the unique properties of each species & higher taxon are b. what properties certain taxa have in common, and c. what the biological causes of the differences or shared characters are 3. Concerned w/ variation within taxa *classification makes organic diversity accessible to the other biological disciplines *that is why systematics holds a unique & indispensable position among biological sciences  Aims of Systematics 1. To inventory the world’s kinds of organisms (flora & fauna) 2. To provide a method for identification & communication 3. To produce a coherent & universal system of classification, & 4. To demonstrate the evolutionary implications of biodiversity 7 Component Fields of Systematics 1. Biodiversity 2. Taxonomy 3. Classification 4. Nomenclature 5. Biogeography 6. Evolutionary Biology 7. Phylogenetics Biodiversity - number & kinds of organisms Taxonomy - art & science of describing organisms Classification - methods of grouping organisms - could be artificial, natural, or evolutionary ----- based on homology Nomenclature - science of naming organisms Biogeography - studies the distribution of organisms - aims to reveal where organisms live, at what abundance, and why they are (or are not) found in a certain geographical area. Evolutionary Systematics - seeks to classify organisms using a combination of phylogenetic relationship and overall similarity - considers taxa rather than single species, so that groups of species give rise to new groups Phylogenetics - study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms(e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices Contributions of Systematics to Biology Applied Biology ◦ epidemiology of malaria in Europe - Anopheles maculipennis found throughout the continent - but, malaria was restricted to local districts & money were wasted because no one understood the connection between distribution of the mosquito & that of malaria  -careful taxonomic studies provided the key to the problem: * A. maculipennis consist of several sibling species w/ different habitats; only some species are vectors of malaria in a given area -thus, the control of the species was directed to specific areas where the organisms that causes malaria occurs ◦ fern weevil, Syagrius fulvitarsis was destructive to Sadleria ferns in Hawaii (1920) - C. E. Pemberton in 1921 ---examined an old private insect collection in Sydney, Australia ---one of the specimen was S. fulvitarsis; date coll.:1857, with locality *a braconid (parasitoid wasps) parasite on the larvae of the weevil was used to control the weevils Other fields ◦ correct identification & classification of species in agriculture, public health, ecology, conservation, genetics, and behavioral biology Tools of Systematics Currently, systematists use ◦ Morphological, biochemical, and molecular comparisons to infer evolutionary relationships  In evaluating molecular homologies, systematists use computer programs and mathematical tools ◦ When analyzing comparable DNA segments from different organisms 1 Ancestral homologous DNA segments are 1 C C A T C A G A G T C C identical as species 1 and species 2 begin to 2 C C A T C A G A G T C C A C G G A T A G T C C A C T A G G C A C T A diverge from their common ancestor. T C A C C G A C A G G T C T T T G A C T A G Deletion 2 Deletion and insertion mutations shift what 1 C C A T C A G A G T C C had been matching 2 C C A T C A G A G T C C sequences in the two species. G T A Insertion 3 Homologous regions 1 C C A T C A A G T C C (yellow) do not all align because of these mutations. 2 C C A T G T A C A G A G T C C 4 Homologous regions 1 C C A T C A A G T C C realign after a computer program adds gaps in 2 C C A T G T A C A G A G T C C sequence 1.  Roles of Taxonomy 1. The only science that provides vivid picture of organic diversity (eukaryotes/prokaryotes; sexual/asexual; producer/consumer) 2. Provides much of the information for the reconstruction of phylogeny (shows genealogical relationships among species) 3. Reveals evolutionary phenomena making them available for causal study 4. Supplies classifications which have heuristic (leads to discovery) & explanatory value in fields of evolution, biochemistry, ecology, genetics 5. Supplies almost all info for entire branches of biology, and 6. Makes important conceptual contributions that would not otherwise be easily accessible to experimental biologists PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS DR. NAZAHATUL ANIS AMALUDIN DR RADHIAH ZAKARIA Plant morphology/phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants.  This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level.  Plant morphology is useful in the visual identification of plants. Basics Plant Parts in Angiosperms: Vegetative characters - Roots - Stems - Leaves Reproductive/ generative characters - Flowers - Fruits - Seeds Part of the shoot system  Each leaf primordium develops into one leaf. Caryota sp. Arecaceae Shoot = stem + associated leaves Bud = immature shoot, usually with protective scale leaves Branch = elongated shoot, arising from bud Root - absorbing/anchoring organ (sometimes storage) storage roots Raphanus sativus, radish Stem - supportive, conductive organ (sometimes storage) Stem (Shoot) Types (mostly leaves) (mostly stem) both underground storage stems  Stem (Shoot) Types Rhizome thickened, storage, long internodes, horizontal, develops from sharp-pointed ends in plantlet underground stem tip stem Leaf - photosynthetic organ (sometimes modified) Leaf Type / Parts simple - blade not divided into leaflets compound-leaf divided into discrete leaflets Leaf Type / Parts Leaf Type / Parts Leaf arrangement  Leaf Venation 2 major types: parallel - monocots netted - eudicots Leaf Structural Type  Leaf Structural Type Stipular Spine - Euphorbia spp. Leaf Spine (arising from (Euphorbiaceae) areole) - Cactaceae Leaf Structural Type Tendril - Lathyrus (Fabaceae)  Leaf Structural Type Bud Scale Bract -modified leaf functioning to -modified, usually reduced leaf protect apical meristem of bud associated with flowers Fruit Seeds  PLANT IDENTIFICATION Identification is associating an unknown entity with a known entity. There are several ways to identify a plant: - specimen comparison, - image comparison, - taxonomic keys, - and expert determination. Key Identification usually dichotomous, meaning that the questions have exactly two possible answers which should be direct opposites (good example: "leaves less than 10 mm long" vs. "leaves more than 10 mm long", bad example: "leaves less than 10 mm long" vs. "leaves serrate"). Two main types of Taxonomic keys Indented key have the two leads of each couplet separated by the couplets following the first lead, so that it is easier to find the next "question“. On the other hand, that makes it harder to compare the alternatives, especially in the first couplets of large keys. Bracketed key (parallel) keep the two leads of every couplet together, allowing for an easier comparison of the alternatives, but that means that only one of the next couplets follows in the text. It is also obvious that, in this case, the key cannot be navigated if the couplets are unnumbered, which would be possible in indented keys. Example of indented key 1. Trunk unbranched (at least above base); leaves more than two feet long, acrocaulis (arising near apex of trunks) 2. Trunk single; leaves pinnately compound, leaflets in more than one plane …………………………………………………………………………………Syagrus romanzoffiana 2.’ Trunks multiple from rhizomatous base; leaves simple with large blade, blade often torn ………………………………………………………………………………………….Strelitzia nicolai 1.’ Trunk with numerous lateral branches; leaves simple or compound, 10 cm long, elliptic, green or brown-red hairy below ……………………………………………………………………………….Magnolia grandiflora 3.’ Leaves compound (with two or more discrete leaflets) 5. Leaves ternately compound, with 3 leaflets ……………………………...…..Erythrina caffra 5.’ Leaves pinnately or bipinnately compound, with more than 3 leaflets 6. Leaves pinnately compound (leaflets along one main axis, the rachis) 7. Leaves usually whorled (usu. three per node), leaflets scabrous (rough, like sandpaper) ……………………………………………………...…..Kigelia africana 7.’ Leaves alternate (one per node), leaflets smooth, not scabrous 8. Leaves paripinnate (without a terminal leaflet); leaflets widely elliptic, entire (without teeth)…………………………………..…………… Ceratonia siliqua 8.’ Leaves imparipinnate (with a terminal leaflet); leaflets elliptic, often with small teeth ……………………………………………Schinus terebinthifolius 6.’ Leaves bipinnately compound (leaflets along secondary axes, rachillae) …………………………………………... ………………………….Jacaranda mimosifolia Example of bracketed key 1.a Trunk unbranched (at least above base); leaves more than two feet long, acrocaulis (arising near apex of trunks)……………………………………………………………………..…………………….…..………...2 1.b Trunk with numerous lateral branches; leaves simple or compound, 10 cm long, elliptic, green or brown-red hairy below ………………………..……………………………………………………………………………….Magnolia grandiflora 5.a Leaves ternately compound, with 3 leaflets …………………………………………………...…..Erythrina caffra 5.b Leaves pinnately or bipinnately compound, with more than 3 leaflets ………………………………………….. 6 6.a Leaves pinnately compound (leaflets along one main axis, the rachis)…………………………………………. 7 6.b Leaves bipinnately compound (leaflets along secondary axes, rachillae) ……….....… Jacaranda mimosifolia 7.a Leaves usually whorled (usu. three per node), leaflets scabrous (rough, like sandpaper) ………………………………….................................................................................................….. Kigelia africana 7.b Leaves alternate (one per node), leaflets smooth, not scabrous……………… ………………………………….. 8 8.a Leaves paripinnate (without a terminal leaflet); leaflets widely elliptic, entire (without teeth)……………… ………………..……………… ………………………………………………………………………….Ceratonia siliqua 8.b Leaves imparipinnate (with a terminal leaflet); leaflets elliptic, often with small teeth ……………………………………………………………………………………….………… Schinus terebinthifolius Flower Part: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwq6mUjKHIo Leaves of flowering plant https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otdXQ7BHdZQ Monocot VS Dicot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHp_voyo7MY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t4ZhtrVH0BE Plant https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4L3r_XJW0I Plant physiology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9ZOHt9BwrU Keys identification https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HtmSfruw6dI How to identify wild plant https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Aj82u2he6s Techniques in Plant ID https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93gjF1lRhDw Dichotomous key https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wpKulkADzBk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MaY4SsOGdE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjvpVNNhj5A https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcp0U6yAJGc Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification KEY CONCEPT Organisms can be classified based on physical similarities. Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification Linnaeus developed the scientific naming system still used today. Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms. White oak: Quercus alba A taxon is a group of organisms in a classification system. Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific naming system. – uses Latin words – scientific names always written in italics – two parts are the genus name and species descriptor Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification A genus includes one or more physically similar species. – Species in the same genus are thought to be closely related. – Genus name is always capitalized. A species descriptor is the second part of a scientific name. – always lowercase – always follows genus name; never written alone Tyto alba Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification Scientific names help scientists to communicate. – Some species have very similar common names. – Some species have many common names. Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification Linnaeus’ classification system has seven levels. Each level is included in the level above it. Levels get increasingly specific from kingdom to species. Activity: Create an acronym that easy for you to remember the Hierarchical Taxonomy Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification The Linnaean classification system has limitations. Linnaeus taxonomy doesn’t account for molecular evidence. – The technology didn’t exist during Linneaus’ time. – Linnaean system based only on physical similarities. Linnaean 17.1 Systems The Linnaean Systemof ofClassification Classification Physical similarities are not always the result of close relationships. Genetic similarities more accurately show evolutionary relationships. 1  DICHOTOMOUS KEY 2 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 01 What is a dichotomous key? CONSTRUCTING DICHOTOMOUS KEY 02 How to construct the dichotomous key? USING KEY IN THE FIELD 03 If you doing sampling in the field and identification needs to be done. The dichotomous key is the way to identify the collected samples. ACTIVITY 04 Practice make perfect. Video attachment  INTRODUCTION 3 01 01 Identification is the recognition of characteristics of organisms and the application of a name to an organism with those particular characteristics (Jones and Luchsinger, 1986). 02 02 The method employed for identifying unknown organisms 03 03 A dichotomous key is constructed of a series of couplets, each consisting of two separate statements. 4  CONSTRUCTING A 5 DICHOTOMOUS KEY 01 01 02 Some use numbers to separate Some taxonomists place each the couplets while others use couplet together, while others letters. may separate couplets 04 02 04 03 Example B: Alphabetical key with some Example A: Numerical key with couplets together couplets separated 1. Seeds round....................soybeans A. Seeds oblong...................B 1. Seeds oblong....................2 B. Seeds white................northern beans 03 2. 2. Seeds white..................northern beans B. Seeds black................black beans 2. 2. Seeds black.................black beans A. Seeds round.....................soybeans IF YOU CAN NOT GET THE IDEA OF CONSTRUCTING THE DICHOTOMOUES KEY 6 A way of introducing students to constructing keys is to have them key their fellow classmates using various human or non-human characteristics. Some of these characters include sex, hair color, height, type of clothing (jeans, slacks, dress, etc.), whether or not they wear glasses, etc. The following key is an example: ACTIVITY 1. Sex female......................................(Fill in the blank – i) 2. Sex male.........................................(Fill in the blank – ii) 2. Hair color black.............................(Fill in the blank – iii) 2. Hair color brown...........................(Fill in the blank – iv) 3. Hair color black.............................(Fill in the blank – v) 3. Hair color brown...........................(Fill in the blank – vi) 4. Glasses worn..............................(Fill in the blank – vii) 4. Glasses not worn........................(Fill in the blank – viii) 5. Pants jeans......................................(Fill in the blank – ix) 5. Pants slacks.................................... (Fill in the blank – xi) 6. Hair color black......................... (Fill in the blank – xii) 6. Hair color brown........................(Fill in the blank – xiii)  REFERENCES 7 01 01 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6AJEmI8__9k 02 02 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=peMiaDhw9sc 03 03 Jones, S. B., and A. E. Luchsinger. 1986. Plant systematics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 512 pages.  Glossary 8 Axillary: on or related to the axis. Bipinnately compound: twice compound (Figure 7.4). Compound: made up of two or more parts. Corolla: all the petals together (Figure 7.1) Head: a short, dense cluster of sessile flowers (Figure 7.3 ) Inflorescence: the mode of arrangement of flowers. Irregular flower: longitudinally divisible into two equal halves (Figure 7.2 ). Lance-shaped: much longer than broad; widest near the base and tapering to the apex. Oval-shaped: egg-shaped with the broader part near the base.  9 Panicle: compound inflorescence; branched raceme (Figure 7.3). Pedicel: the stalk of a flower or flower cluster (Figure 7.3). Petiole: a stalk of a leaf (Figure 7.4). Pinnately compound: leaf with a central stalk in which leaflets arise (Figure 7.4). Raceme: elongated inflorescence with pedicellate flowers (Figure 7.3). Regular flower: symmetrical in shape (Figure 7.2). Spike: elongated inflorescence with stalkless (sessile) flowers (Figure 7.3). Trifoliate leaf: a compound leaf consisting of three leaflets (Figure 7.4). Umbel: a flat-topped or rounded inflorescence in which the pedicels arise from a common point (Figure 7.3). 10 11 ENT1263 Plant Preservation & Identification Dr. Nazahatul A nis Am a lud in Fe b rua ry 20 20 / 20 21  Nature! In this area, there are lots of plant can be identified, but HOW???  Table of Contents 1 2 3 What is thePlant Typeof Plant What is herbarium Identification? Collection specimen? Describe the topic of Describe the topic of Describe the topic of the section here the section here the section here  1 What is thePlant I dentification? You can enter a subtitle here if you need it  Definition Preservation to keep safe from injury, harm, or destruction. to keep alive, intact, or free from decay. to keep or save from decomposition. to can, pickle, or similarly prepare for future use. to keep up and reserve for personal or special use. How to preserve plants? Many preserved materials will last almost indefinitely with little care. Dried materials to re m ove m ois ture s lowly while a t the s a m e tim e m a inta ining a s m uc h of the orig ina l s ha p e a nd te xture a s p os s ib le  Methods Naturally Dry Some dry grassess, reeds, pine or other cones Artificial Drying Fresh plant materials 1. Air drying 2. Microvawe drying 3. Silica gel 4. Freeze drying 5. Oven drying (Herbarium specimens)  Special Preservation Techniques Glycerine Skeletonizing Bleaching Can be used to eliminates all tissue After bleaching, dried preserve foliage but the "skeleton" foliage with a Example: Mushroom or veins of leaves commercial florist dye  2 Type of Plant Collection 1. Wet collection 1. Wet collection 2. Dried collection 3. Living collection Fernarium  3 What is herbarium specimen?  Herbarium specimen A whole plant or plants, or portion of a plant 1 of such size that when pressed flat it will fit onto a sheet of mounting paper size A3. The plant or specimens thereof are selected to show the 2 essential features of leaves, flowers and fruits. Each specimen is accompanied by a number tag relating to a 3 numbered field note in the field note book. The specimens are pressed flat and dried  HERBARIUM 1 2 3 Store house of plant The collected plant According to Fosberg & specimens. In it dried, pressed, speciemens from far & Sachet a m od e rn preserved & mounted plant wide, mounted on he rb a rium is a g re a t filling specimens are arrange in a appropriate sheets & s ys te m for inform a tion sequence of an accepted kept in pigeon holes of a b out p la nts b oth p rim a ry system of classification for steel or wooden in the form of a c tua l futute reference & study. cupboards for study at s p e c im e ns a nd s e c ond a ry the same place and time in the form of p ub lis he d inform a tion, p ic ture s & re c ord e d note s.  Functions of Herbarium 1 2 3 Conservatory of To a llow a c c ura te m a te ria l & d a ta id e ntific a tion of To c e rtify tha t a p la nt na m e is c orre c t b y p la nts p rovid ing a vita l re fe re nc e c olle c tion of a uthe ntic a te d m a te ria l. This is ofte n b a s e d on the orig ina l m a te ria us e d to fra m e the p la nt’s d e s c rip tion a nd is c a lle d “typ e m a te ria l” 4 5 To a c t a s a s ourc e of inform a tion Allow the va lid a tion of 6 a b out p la nts ( d is trib ution , s c ie ntific ob s e rva tions Sup p ort the re s e a rc h e c olog y or p la nt m e d ic ina l ( c lim a te c ha ng e , g e ne tic a nd te a c hing us a g e ) a nd c ons e rva tion a c tivitie s m a tte rs )  History The first herbarium of the world was founded in 1545 University of Padua, Italy 1500 recognised herbaria Located in institutions, universities, pharmacies FACTS WOW Did you know?  Also Save the Animals In Oceans In Forests Mercury is the closest planet to It ha s a b e a utiful na m e a nd is the Sun in the Sola r Sys te m the s e c ond p la ne t from the Sun Thank You! Do you have any questions? na za nis @ um k.e d u.m y +6 0 19 - 9 134 6 10 CREDITS: This presentation template was c re a te d by Slidesgo , inc lud ing ic ons by Flaticon , infog ra phic s & im a g e s by Freepik  ENT1263 BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE DR. NAZAHATUL ANIS AMALUDIN LECTURE WEEK 6 (18 APRIL - 24 APRIL 2021) Thank you ANY QUESTIONS PLEASE ASK ME DR RADHIAH ZAKARIA  Domain  Kingdom  Phylum  Class  Order  Family  Genus  Species  Bacteria ◦ true bacteria, peptidoglycan  Archaea ◦ odd bacteria that live in extreme environments, high salt, heat, etc. (usually called extremophiles)  Eukarya ◦ have a nucleus & organelles (humans, animals, plants)  5 main kingdoms: ◦ Plantae ◦ Animalia ◦ Bacteria  Eubacteria ◦ Archaea Archaeabacteria ◦ Protista  Algae  Protozoa ◦ Fungi  Viruses do not fit domain system as they are acellular.  Usually only classified by Family and Genus.  Usually only referred to by common name.  E.g. HIV (human immuno-deficiency virus) ◦ Genus = Lentivirus ◦ Family = Retroviridae  Viral species = defined as a population of viruses with similar characteristics (including morphology, genes and enzymes) that occupy a particular ecological niche  Non-cellular  Have DNA or RNA genome  Ranges in size from 10-400nm  Categorized by: ◦ Size & shape ◦ Type of nucleic acid (single or double stranded) ◦ Presence or absence of an outer envelope  All virus possess the same basic anatomy ◦ An outer capsid composed of protein subunits ◦ An inner core of either DNA or RNA Virus particle Covering Inner core Envelope (Not Nucleic acid Various Capsid found in all molecules proteins (Protein) viruses (DNA or RNA) (Enzymes)  Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites – they cannot reproduce outside a living cell.  Virus cannot duplicate its genetic materials or other components.  Must infect a living cell.  Infected cell duplicates the nucleic acid and other parts of the virus.  Virus can also mutate.  On the basis of host specificity, viruses fall into four main groups: i) Animal viruses (mammalian) ii) Plant viruses iii) Insect (invertebrate) viruses iv) Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages).  Classification of bacteria ◦ Phenotypic classification systems:  Gram stain and bacterial morphology  Growth Requirements  Biochemical reactions  Serologic systems  Environmental Reservoirs ◦ Genotypic systems  Universal Phylogenetic Tree  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequence analysis  Molecular subtyping  Common type of prokaryote.  Found in every kind of environment on earth  Most bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall - peptidoglycan  Peptidoglycan – Polysaccharides linked amino acids.  Commonly differentiated using the Gram procedure.  Gram positive – retain a dye-iodine complex and appear purple. ◦ A thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls ◦ E.g. Clostridium tetani.  Gram negative – does not retain the complex – appear pink. ◦ A thin layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls ◦ E.g. Vibrio cholerae  Described in terms of their 3 basic shapes: ◦ Spirilli – Spiral shape or helical shape ◦ Bacilli – rod-shape ◦ Cocci – round or spherical  Protists are grouped into three major, unofficial categories based on means by which they obtain nutrition.  These are: ◦ Algae ◦ Protozoa ◦ Fungus-like Protists Algae (singular alga /ˈælɡə/, Latin for "seaweed") are a very large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms. ranging from unicellular (Chlorella) to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp (large brown alga), that may grow up to 50 meters in length. These protists are photosynthetic; their nutrition is plant-like (they do photosynthesis to provide their own food). Almost all of them have chlorophyll A, most have chlorophyll C, but only a few have chlorophyll B 1. Unicellular algae 2. Colonies 3. Filaments 4. Multicellular  „Microalgae‟ - some may form colonies e.g. Chlorophyta: Volvox (Order Volvocales) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w8O4OolGcPg - 500-5000 cells per colony. - Colonies spherical up to 1.5 mm diameter. - Individual cells surrounded by a mucilaginous sphere - marine and freshwater  Unbranched filaments  Branched filaments ◦ Different branches can have different morphologies: Marine habitats: ◦ seaweeds, phytoplankton Freshwater habitats: ◦ streams, rivers, lakes and ponds Terrestrial habitats: ◦ stone walls, tree bark, leaves, in lichens, on snow  Primary producers, basis of food webs, “FORESTS/GRASSES OF THE SEA”  Pioneer Species: on rocky shores, mudflats, hot springs, lichen communities, 'snow algae'  O2 production and carbon fixation in aquatic habitats.  Rare autotrophic organisms in extreme habitats. Protozoa (sing., protozoon) means “first animals.” As the name suggests, they are superficially animal like. They are nonphotosynthetic and usually motile. Allprotozoa are microscopic. Protozoa cause diseases, such as malaria and African sleeping sickness, that kill millions of people every year. Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which are motile. Historically, protozoa were defined as unicellular protists with animal-like behaviour, such as movement or i.e., motility. Protozoa were regarded as the partner group of protists to protophyta, which have plant-like behavior, e.g. photosynthesis. The term protozoan has become highly problematic due to the introduction of modern ultrastructural, biochemical, and genetic techniques. Today, protozoan are usually single-celled and heterotrophic eukaryotes containing non- filamentous  Protozoa are one-celled animals found worldwide in most habitats. Most species are free living, but all higher animals are infected with one or more species of protozoa.  Infections range from asymptomatic to life threatening, depending on the species and strain of the parasite and the resistance of the host. Carried by the Anopheles mosquito  Plasmodium falciparum– most virulent and prevalent Leishmania Ulcer  The Protozoa are considered to be a subkingdom of the kingdom Protista, although in the classical system they were placed in the kingdom Animalia.  More than 50,000 species have been described, most of which are free-living organisms; protozoa are found in almost every possible habitat.  Protozoa are microscopic unicellular eukaryotes that have a relatively complex internal structure and carry out complex metabolic activities.  Some protozoa have structures for propulsion or other types of movement.  Most parasitic protozoa in humans are less than 50 μm in size. The smallest (mainly intracellular forms) are 1 to 10 μm long, but Balantidium coli may measure 150 μm.  Organism Size Plasmodium merozoites 2-5 µm Paramecium 200-500 µm Spirostomum ambiguum 3 mm Nummulites (fossilized) 7- 13 cm On the basis of light and electron microscopic morphology, the protozoa are currently classified into six phyla. In 1985 the Society of Protozoologists published a taxonomic scheme that distributed the Protozoa into six phyla. Two of these phyla—the Sarcomastigophora and the Apicomplexa--contain the most important species causing human disease.  Some protozoa have life stages alternating between proliferative stages (e.g., trophozoites) and dormant cysts.  As cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures or harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of a host, and allows their transmission from one host to another.  When protozoa are in the form of trophozoites (Greek, tropho = to nourish), they actively feed.  The conversion of a trophozoite to cyst form is known as encystation, while the process of transforming back into a trophozoite is known as excystation.  Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce sexually,  Protozoan infections are parasitic diseases organisms formerly classified in the Kingdom Protozoa.  They include organisms classified in Amoebozoa, Excavata, and Chromalveolata.  Examples include Entamoeba histolytica, Plasmodium (some of which cause malaria), and Giardia lamblia.  Trypanosoma brucei, transmitted by the tsetse fly and the cause of African sleeping sickness, is another example. Three common phyla  A large group of plant-like living organisms that includes heterotrophic eukaryotes are usually filamentous, devoid of chlorophyll, with chitinous cell wall, and produces spores. e.g. the yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.  They feed by extracellular digestion through hyphae they grow when they land on a suitable food source – saprotrophs.  Fungi are one of four major groups of microorganisms.  They exist in nature in one of two forms: as unicellular yeasts or as branching filamentous molds (also may be spelled as "moulds").  Some fungi are dimorphic – they change from one form to another depending on their environment.\  Fungal cells are quite different from plant cells. ◦ Lacking chloroplasts ◦ Having cell wall that contain chitin and not cellulose  The energy reserve of fungi is not starch but glycogen, as in animals.  While yeasts cannot be seen with the naked eye, molds can be seen as the fuzzy splotches on overripe fruit or stale bread, as mildew in the bathroom shower, and as mushrooms growing on a rotted log.  Produces the drug penicillin, which cure bacterial infections.  Cyclosporine – suppresses the immune system leading to the successful transplantation operations  Selected yeast such as Sacchromyces cerevisiae are added to relatively sterile juice to make wine.  Aspergillus is a group of green molds used to produce soy souce by fermenting soy beans  There are more than 50,000 species of fungi in the environment, but less than 200 species are associated with human disease. Of these, only about 20 to 25 species are common causes of infection.  Yeast can be harmful to humans. Candida albicans is a yeast that causes the widest variety of fungal infections. Disease occurs when the normal balance of microbes in an organ is disturbed , particularly by antibiotic therapy.  Oral trush – candida infection of the mouth.  Aspergillus flavus which grows on moist seeds, secretes toxin that is the most potent natural carcinogen known.  Aspergillus also causes a potentially deadly diseases of the respiratory tract that arise after spores have been inhaled.