Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry PDF

 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN  TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY Biren N. Shah Lecturer Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry Vidyabharti Trust College of Phar...

 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN  TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY Biren N. Shah Lecturer Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry Vidyabharti Trust College of Pharmacy Umrakh, Gujarat A.K. Seth Principal and Dean Department of Pharmacy Sumandeep Vidyapeeth University Vadodara, Gujarat ELSEVIER A division of Reed Elsevier India Private Limited Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry Shah and Seth ELSEVIER A division of Reed Elsevier India Private Limited Mosby, Saunders, Churchill Livingstone, Butterworth Heinemann and Hanley & Belfus are the Health Science imprints of Elsevier. © 2010 Elsevier First Edition 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without the prior written permission from the publisher and the copyright holder. ISBN: 978-81-312-2298-0 Medical knowledge is constantly changing. As new information becomes available, changes in treatment, procedures, equipment and the use of drugs become necessary. The authors, editors, contributors and the publisher have, as far as it is possible, taken care to ensure that the information given in this text is accurate and up-to-date. However, readers are strongly advised to confirm that the information, especially with regard to drug dose/usage, complies with current legislation and standards of practice. Please consult full prescribing information before issuing prescriptions for any product mentioned in the publication. Published by Elsevier, a division of Reed Elsevier India Private Limited Registered Office: Gate No. 3, Building No. A-1, 2, Industrial Area, Kalkaji, New Delhi-110019 Corporate Office: 14th Floor, Building No. 10B, DLF Cyber City, Phase II, Gurgaon-122002, Haryana, India Commissioning Editor: Nimisha Goswami Editor: Subodh K. Chauhan Manager Publishing Operations: Sunil Kumar Manager Production: N.C. Pant Laser typeset by Chitra Computers, New Delhi. Printed and bound at Rajkamal Electric Press, Kundli, Haryana Preface Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry is the outcome of numerous efforts of authors to assimilate the voluminous knowledge of traditional and modern pharmacognosy, which has long been a requirement of the curricula of various universities across the world. In times of yore, pharmacognosy was considered as the study of drugs of natural origin. The American Society of Pharmacognosy derived it as the study of physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drug, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources. The world of pharmacognosy has continuously been enriching with multifaceted information considering various aspects of the natural drugs including history, alternative medicinal systems, classification, morphology, identification, cultivation, collection, production and utilization of drugs; trade and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants and their contribu- tion to national economy; adulteration of drugs of natural origin; evaluation of drugs by their physical, chemical and organoleptic properties; biological screening of herbal drugs; biosynthetic pathways of various phytopharmaceuticals; pharmacognostical study of crude drugs; extraction, isolation and purification of herbal drugs and modern plant biotech- nology. Such an enormous information about the natural drug gives rise to a subject that is now recognized as modern pharmacognosy. It is a highly interdisciplinary science, encompassing a broad range of studies involving phytochemical study of medicinal plants and biologically active principles obtained from plants in addition to the traditional pharma- cognostical aspects of natural drugs. Considering all this comprehensive information of the subject, a textbook is premeditated to contribute substantially to the world of pharmacognosist. This modern book of pharmacognosy and phytochemistry emphasizes the biodiversity of plants and encompasses biosynthesis, extraction, isolation of compounds with TLC identification, bioactivity determina- tion and synthesis of plant components of interest in addition to the traditional pharmacognosy comprising cultivation, collection, morphology, microscopy, taxonomy, chemical constituents and uses of drugs of natural origin. A special feature of the book is an additional advantage, that of inclusion of marketed products of the drugs described. The book is designed to have 35 chapters divided into 10 parts (A to J). Each chapter is written with the aim to give a reasonable background to academician and researchers in the respective topic. A special miscellaneous chapter has been devoted to provide information about ayurvedic, marine medicinal plants, neutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals as well as herbs that have proved to be pesticides or allergens or producing colours, dyes and hallucinogenic effects. The objective of the authors is fully achieved by systemic assemblage of the well-written chapters with neat and clean well-labelled diagrams wherever necessary. The authors convey the deep sense of gratitude to their grandparents, parents, spouses and children for motivating them to provide a kind of book badly required collectively for undergraduate, postgraduate and researchers at one place. This is an added advantage the book will give to the readers of any walk of life. Doubtless, authors are indebted to all who have supported in giving this present shape to the book. Last but not the least, authors are immensely thankful to our publisher for their support, guidance and cooperation to publish this book. Suggestions and criticisms will always be solicited by the authors to further improve the quality of the book in real sense. —Authors 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN Contents Preface v PART – A Introduction to Pharmacognosy 1–26 Chapter 1 History, Definition and Scope of Pharmacognosy 3–9 Chapter 2 Alternative Systems of Medicines 10–21 Chapter 3 Classification of Drugs of Natural Origin 22–26 PART – B Pharmaceutical Botany 27–65 Chapter 4 Morphology of Different Parts of Medicinal Plant 29–56 Chapter 5 Study of Different Families 57–65 PART – C Cultivation, Collection, Production and Utilization of Herbal Drugs 67–104 Chapter 6 Cultivation, Collection and Processing of Herbal Drugs 69–87 Chapter 7 Indian Trade in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 88–94 Chapter 8 Utilization of Aromatic Plants and Derived Products 95–100 Chapter 9 Role of Medicinal Plants on National Economy 101–104 PART – D Analytical Pharmacognosy 105–138 Chapter 10 Drug Adulteration 107–109 Chapter 11 Evaluation of Crude Drugs 110–114 Chapter 12 Biological Screening of Herbal Drugs 115–138 PART – E Biogenesis of Phytopharmaceuticals 139–155 Chapter 13 General Biosynthetic Pathways of Secondary Metabolites 141–155 PART – F Pharmacognostical Study of Crude Drugs 157–403 Chapter 14 Drugs Containing Carbohydrates and Derived Products 159–184 Chapter 15 Drugs Containing Alkaloids 185–231 viii CONTENTS Chapter 16 Drugs Containing Glycosides 232–279 Chapter 17 Drugs Containing Volatile Oils 280–317 Chapter 18 Drugs Containing Resins 318–341 Chapter 19 Drugs Containing Lipids 342–361 Chapter 20 Drugs Containing Tannins 362–376 Chapter 21 Enzymes and Protein Drugs 377–387 Chapter 22 Fibres, Sutures and Surgical Dressings 388–398 Chapter 23 Drugs of Mineral Origin 399–403 PART – G Extraction, Isolation and Purification of Herbal Drugs 405–433 Chapter 24 General Methods for Extraction, Isolation and Identification of Herbal Drugs 407–416 Chapter 25 Isolation of Phytopharmaceuticals 417–433 PART – H Medicinal Plant Biotechnology 435–452 Chapter 26 Plant Tissue Culture 437–452 PART – I Miscellaneous 453–521 Chapter 27 Ayurvedic Pharmacy 455–460 Chapter 28 Marine Pharmacognosy 461–470 Chapter 29 Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals 471–483 Chapter 30 Natural Pesticides 484–494 Chapter 31 Poisonous Plants 495–506 Chapter 32 Natural Allergens 507–509 Chapter 33 Natural Colours and Dyes 510–515 Chapter 34 Hallucinogenic Plants 516–521 PART – J Traditional Drugs of India 523–554 Chapter 35 Detail Study of Traditional Drugs of India 525–554 Index 555 Biological Index 572 PART A INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN  CHAPTER 1 History, Definition and Scope of Pharmacognosy 1.1. MEANING OF PHARMACOGNOSY dried juice of leaves of Aloe species, opium is the dried latex from poppy capsules and black catechu is the dried aqueous Pharmacognosy, known initially as extract from the wood of Acacia catechu. Plant exudates such materia medica, may be defined as the as gums, resins and balsams, volatile oils and fixed oils are study of crude drugs obtained from also considered as crude drugs. plants, animals and mineral kingdom Further drugs used by physicians and surgeons or phar- and their constituents. There is a macists, directly or indirectly, like cotton, silk, jute and historical misinformation about nylon in surgical dressing or kaolin; diatomite used in who created the term pharmacognosy. According to some sources, it was filtration of turbid liquid or gums; wax, gelatin, agar used C. A. Seydler, a medical student at as pharmaceutical auxiliaries of flavouring or sweetening Halle, Germany, in 1815; he wrote agents or drugs used as vehicles or insecticides are used C. A. Seydler his doctoral thesis titled Analectica in pharmacognosy. Pharmacognostica. However, recent Drugs obtained from animals are entire animals, as can- historical research has found an earlier usage of this term. tharides; glandular products, like thyroid organ or extracts The physician J. A. Schmidt (Vienna) used that one in his like liver extracts. Similarly, fish liver oils, musk, bees wax, Lehrbuch der materia medica in 1811, to describe the study of certain hormones, enzymes and antitoxins are products medicinal plants and their properties. The word pharmacog- obtained from animal sources. nosy is derived from two Latin words pharmakon, ‘a drug,’ Drugs are organized or unorganized. Organized drugs and gignoso, ‘to acquire knowledge are direct parts of plants and consist of cellular tissues. of ’. It means ‘knowledge or science Unorganized drugs, even though prepared from plants of drugs’. are not the direct parts of plants and are prepared by some Crude drugs are plants or animals, intermediary physical processes, such as incision, drying or or their parts which after collec- extraction with water and do not contain cellular tissue. tion are subjected only to drying or Thus aloe, opium, catechu, gums, resins and other plant making them into transverse or lon- exudates are unorganized drugs. gitudinal slices or peeling them in Drugs from mineral sources are kaolin, chalk, diatomite some cases. Most of the crude drugs and other bhasmas of Ayurveda. used in medicine are obtained from J. A. Schmidt plants, and only a small number 1.2. ORIGIN OF PHARMACOGNOSY comes from animal and mineral kingdoms. Drugs obtained from plants consist of entire Views on the beginning of life on planet Earth have forever plants, whereas senna leaves and pods, nux vomica seeds, remained controversial and an unending subject of debate. ginger rhizome and cinchona bark are parts of plants. Nevertheless, we can say with certainty that the vegetable Though in a few cases, as in lemon and orange peels and kingdom was already there when man made his appearance in colchicum corm, drugs are used in fresh condition, on Earth. As man began to acquire closure acquaintance and most of the drugs are dried after collections. Crude with his environment, he began to know more about plants, drugs may also be obtained by simple physical processes as these were the only curative agents he had. As he pro- like drying or extraction with water. Therefore, aloe is the gressed and evolved, he was not only able to sort on as to 4 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY which plant served for eating and which did not, but he are still recognized in pharmacy (podophyllum, rhubarb, went beyond and began to associate curative characteristics ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon bark and ephedra). with certain plants, classifying them as painkillers, febri- Inscriptions on oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty fuge, antiphlogistics, soporific and so on. This must have (1766–1122 B.C.), discovered in Honan Province, have pro- involved no doubt, a good deal of trial and error, and pos- vided a record of illness, medicines and medical treatment. sibly some deaths in the beginning also, but as it happened Furthermore, a number of medical treatises on silk banners antidotes against poisons were also discovered. As we shall and bamboo slips were excavated from the tomb number see later, drug substitutes were also forthcoming. All these three at Ma-Huang-Tui in Changsha, Hunan Province. states of affairs indicate that the origin of pharmacognosy, These were copied from books some time between the i.e. the study of natural curative agents points towards the Chin and Han periods (300 B.C.–A.D. 3) and constitute accent of human beings on mother earth, and its historical the earliest medical treatises existing in China. account makes it clear that pharmacognosy in its totality The most important clinical manual of traditional is not the work of just one or two continental areas but Chinese medicine is the Shang Hang Lun (Treatise on the the overall outcome of the steadfast work of many of the Treatment of Acute Diseases Caused by Cold) written by Chang bygone civilizations like the Chinese, Egyptian, Indian, Chung-Ching (142–220). The fame and reputation of the Persian, Babylonian, Assyrian and many more. Many of Shang Han Lun as well as its companion book, Chin Kuei Yao today’s wonderful modern drugs find their roots in the Lueh (Prescriptions from the Golden Chamber), is the historical medicines developed by the tribal traditions in the various origin of the most important classical herbal formulas that parts of the world. have become the basis of Chinese and Japanese-Chinese herbalism (called ‘Kampo’). 1.3. HISTORY OF PHARMACOGNOSY With the interest in alchemy came the development of In the early period, primitive man went in search of food pharmaceutical science and the creation of a number of and ate at random, plants or their parts like tubers, fruits, books including Tao Hong Jing’s (456–536) compilation leaves, etc. As no harmful effects were observed he con- of the Pen T’sao Jing Ji Zhu (Commentaries on the Herbal sidered them as edible materials and used them as food. If Classic) based on the Shen Nong Pen T’sao Jing, in 492. he observed other effects by their eating they were consid- In that book 730 herbs were described and classified in six ered inedible, and according to the actions he used them categories: (1) stone (minerals), (2) grasses and trees, (3) in treating symptoms or diseases. If it caused diarrhoea it insects and animals, (4) fruits and vegetables, (5) grains and was used as purgative, if vomitting it was used as memtic (6) named but unused. During the Sui dynasty (589–618) and if it was found poisonous and death was caused, he the study of herbal medicine blossomed with the creation used it as arrow poison. The knowledge was empirical and of specialized books on plants and herbal medicine. Some was obtained by trial and error. He used drugs as such or of these set forth the method for the gathering of herbs as their infusions and decoctions. The results were passed in the wild as well as their cultivation. Over 20 herbals on from one generation to the other, and new knowledge were chronicled in the Sui Shu JingJi Zhi (Bibliography of was added in the same way. the History of Sui). These include the books Zhong Zhi Yue Fa (How to Cultivate Herbs) and the Ru Lin Cat Yue Fa (How Ancient China to Collect Herbs in the Forest). Chinese pharmacy, according to legend, stems from Shen From the Sung Dynasty (960–1276) the establishment Nung (about 2700 B.C.), emperor who sought out and of pharmaceutical system has been a standard practice investigated the medicinal value of several hundred herbs. throughout the country. Before the ingredients of Chinese He reputed to have tested many of them on himself, and to medicine can be used to produce pharmaceuticals, they have written the first Pen T-Sao, or Native Herbal, recording must undergo a preparation process, e.g. baking, simmer- 365 drugs. These were subdivided as follows: 120 emperor ing or roasting. The preparation differs according to the herbs of high, food grade quality which are non-toxic and needs for the treatment of the disease. Preparation methods, can be taken in large quantities to maintain health over a production methods and technology have constantly been long period of time, 120 minister herbs, some mildly toxic improved over time. and some not, having stronger therapeutic action to heal In 1552, during the later Ming Dynasty, Li Shi Zhen diseases and finally 125 servant herbs that having specific (1518–1593) began work on the monumental Pen T’sao action to treat disease and eliminate stagnation. Most of Kan Mu (Herbal with Commentary). After 27 years and three those in the last group, being toxic, are not intended to be revisions, the Pen T’sao Kan Mu was completed in 1578. used daily over a prolonged period of weeks and months. The book lists 1892 drugs, 376 described for the first Shen Nung conceivably examined many herbs, barks and time with 1160 drawings. It also lists more than 11,000 roots brought in from the fields, swamps and woods that prescriptions.  HISTORY, DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 5 Ancient Egypt to be the most important ancient authoritative writing on Ayurveda. The Susruta Samhita is thought to have arisen The most complete medical documents existing are the about the same time period as the Charaka Samhita, but Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.), a collection of 800 prescriptions, slightly after it Astanga Hrdayam and the Astanga Sangraha mentioning 700 drugs and the Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 have been dated about the same time and are thought B.C.), which contains surgical instructions and formulas to date after the Charaka and Susruta Samhitas. Most of for cosmetics. The Kahun Medical Papyrus is the oldest—it mentioned medicines origin from plants and animals, e.g. comes from 1900 B.C. and deals with the health of women, ricinus, pepper, lilly, valerian, etc. including birthing instructions. However, it is believed that the Smith Papyrus was Ancient Greece and Rome copied by a scribe from an Greek scientists contributed much to the knowledge of older document that may natural history. Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.) is referred to have dated back as far as as father of medicine and is remembered for his famous 3000 B.C. Commonly used oath which is even now administered to doctors. Aristotle herbs included: senna, honey, (384–322 B.C.), a student of Plato was a philosopher and is thyme, juniper, cumin, (all known for his writing on animal kingdom which is consid- for digestion); pomegranate ered authoritative even in twentieth century. Theophrastus root, henbane (for worms) (370–287 B.C.), a student of Aristotle, wrote about plant as well as flax, oakgall, pine- kingdom. Dioscorides, a physician who lived in the first A fragment of Ebers Papyrus tar, manna, bayberry, ammi, century A.D., described medicinal plants, some of which alkanet, aloe, caraway, cedar, coriander, cyperus, elderberry, like belladonna, ergot, opium, colchicum are used even fennel, garlic, wild lettuce, nasturtium, onion, peppermint, today. Pliny wrote 37 volumes of natural history and Galen papyrus, poppy-plant, saffron, watermelon, wheat and (131–A.D. 200) devised methods of preparations of plant zizyphus-lotus. Myrrh, turpentine and acacia gum were and animal drugs, known as ‘galenicals’ in his honour. also used. Pharmacy separated from medicine and materia medica, the science of material medicines, describing collection, Ancient India preparation and compounding, emerged. In India knowledge of medicinal plants is very old, and Even upto the beginning of twentieth century, pharma- medicinal properties of plants are described in Rigveda and cognosy was more of a descriptive subject akin mainly to in Atharvaveda (3500–1500 B.C.) from which Ayurveda has botanical science, and it consisted of identification of drugs developed. The basic medicinal texts in this world region— both in entire and powdered conditions and concerned The Ayurvedic writings—can be divided in three main ones with their history, commerce, collection, preparation and (Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Astanga Hrdayam Samhita) storage. and three minor ones (Sarngadhara Samhita, Bhava Prakasa The development of modern pharmacognosy took place Samhita, Madhava Nidanam Samhita). Ayurveda is the term later during the period 1934–1960 by simultaneous appli- for the traditional medicine of ancient India. Ayur means cation of disciplines like organic chemistry, biochemistry, life and veda means the study of which is the origin of the biosynthesis, pharmacology and modern methods and term. The oldest writing—Charaka Samhita—is believed to techniques of analytic chemistry, including paper, thin layer, date back six to seven centuries before Christ. It is assumed and gas chromatography and spectophotometry. Hippocrates Aristotle and Plato Theophrastus Galen Pliny 6 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY The substances from the plants were isolated, their Natural products as models for synthesis of new structures elucidated and pharmacological active constitu- drugs ents studied. The development was mainly due to the Morphine is the model of a large group of potent analgesics, following four events: cocaine for local anaesthetics, atropine for certain spasmo- 1. Isolation of penicillin in 1928 by William Fleming and lytics, dicoumarol for anticoagulants and salicin for salicylic large-scale production in 1941 by Florey and Chain. acid derivatives. Without model substances from plants a 2. Isolation of resperpine from rauwolfia roots and con- large number of synthetics would have been missed. firming its hypotensive and tranquilizing properties. Drugs of direct therapeutic uses 3. Isolation of vinca alkaloids, especially vincristine and vinblasting. Vincristine was found useful in the treat- Among the natural constituents, which even now cannot be ment of leukaemia. These alkaloids also have anticancer replaced, are important groups of antibiotics, steroids, ergot properties. alkaloids and certain antitumour substances. Further, drugs 4. Steroid hormones like progesterone were isolated by as digitoxin, strophanthus glycosides, morphine, atropine partial synthesis from diosgenin and other steroid and several others are known since long and have survived saponins by Marker’s method. Cortisone and hydro- their later day synthetic analogues. cortisone are obtained from progesterone by chemical Biosynthetic pathways and microbial reaction. Biosynthetic pathways are of primary and secondary metab- This period can also be termed antibiotic age, as besides olites. Some of the important pathways are Calvin’s cycle pencillin, active antibiotics like streptomycin, chloram- of photosynthesis, shikimic acid pathway of aromatic com- phenicol, tetracycline and several hundred antibiotics have pounds, acetate hypothesis for anthracene glycosides and been isolated and studied extensively. isoprenoid hypothesis for terpenes and steroids via acetate- Some of the important aspects of the natural products mevalonic acid-isopentyl pyrophosphate and squalene. that led to the modern development of drugs and phar- Progress from 1960 onwards maceuticals are as follows: During this period only a few active constituents mainly Isolation of phytochemicals antibiotics, hormones and antitumour drugs were isolated Strong acting substances such as glycosides of digitalis or new possibilities for their production were found. From and scilla, alkaloids of hyoscyamus and belladonna, ergot, 6-amino penicillanic acid, which has very little antibiotic rauwolfia, morphine and other alkaloids of opium were action of its own, important broad-spectrum semisyn- isolated and their clinical uses studied. thetic penicillins like ampenicillin and amoxicillin were developed. Structure activity relationship From ergocryptine, an alkaloid of ergot, bromocryptine Tubocurarine and toxiferine from curare have muscle relax- has been synthesized. Bromocryptine is a prolactin inhibitor ant properties because of quaternary ammonium groups. and also has activity in Parkinson’s disease and in cancer. The hypotensive and tranquillizing actions of reserpine are By applications of several disciplines, pharmacognosy from attributed to the trimethoxy benzoic acid moiety which is a descriptive subject has again developed into an integral considered essential. Mescaline and psilocybine have psy- and important disciplines of pharmaceutical sciences. chocative properties. Presence of a lactone ring is essential for the action of cardiac glycosides. Likewise anthraquinone Technical products glycosides cannot have their action without satisfying the Natural products, besides being used as drugs and thera- positions at C3, C1, C8, C9 and C10. peutic aids, are used in a number of other industries as beverages, condiments, spices, in confectioneries and as Drugs obtained by partial synthesis of natural technical products. products The coffee beans and tea leaves besides being the source Oxytocic activity of methyl ergometrine is more than that of caffein are used as popular beverages. Ginger and win- of ergometrine. In ergotamine, by 9:10 hydrogenation, tergreen oil are used less pharmaceutically but are more oxytocic activity is suppressed and spasmolytic activity used in preparation of soft drinks. Mustard seed and clove increases. We have already referred to the preparation of are used in spice and in condiment industry. Cinnamon steroid hormones from diosgenin by acetolysis and oxi- oil and peppermint oil besides being used as carminatives dation and further preparation of cortisone by microbial are used as flavouring agents in candies and chewing gum. reactions. Colophony resin, turpentine oil, linseed oil, acacia, pectin, Steroid hormones and their semisynthetic analogues and numerous other natural products are used widely in represent a multimillion dollar industry in the United other industries and are called technical products. States.  HISTORY, DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 7 Pharmaceuticals aids that conservationists especially in the United States have Some of the natural products obtained from plants and argued that by finding new drug leads from the rainfor- animals are used as pharmaceutical aids. Thus gums like est, the value of the rainforests to society is proven, and acacia and tragacanth are used as binding, suspending and that this would prevent these areas being cut down for emulsifying agents. Guar gum is used as a thickening unsustainable timber use. However, tropical forests have agent and as a binder and a disintegrating agent in the produced only 47 major pharmaceutical drugs of world- manufacturing of tablets. Sterculia and tragacanth because wide importance. It is estimated that a lot more, say about of their swelling property are used as bulk laxative drugs. 300 potential drugs of major importance may need to be Mucilage-containing drugs like ishabgul and linseed are discovered. These new drugs would be worth $147 billion. used as demulcents or as soothing agents and as bulk It is thought that 125,000 flowering plant species are of laxatives. Starch is used as a disintegrating agent in the pharmacological relevance in the tropical forests. It takes manufacture of tablets and because of its demulcent and 50,000 to 100,000 screening tests to discover one profitable absorbent properties it’s used in dusting powders. Sodium drug. Even in developed countries there is a huge potential alginate is used as an establishing, thickening, emulsifying for the development of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals deflocculating, gelling and filming agent. Carbohydrate- from herbal materials. For example the UK herbal materia containing drugs like glucose, sucrose and honey are used medica contains around 300 species, whereas the Chinese as sweetening agents and as laxative by osmosis. herbal materia medica contains around 7,000 species. One Agar, in addition to being used as a laxative by osmosis, can imagine what lies in store in the flora-rich India! is also used as an emulsifying agent and in culture media in microbiology. Saponins and sponin-containing drugs are 1.4. SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY used as detergents, emulsifying and frothing agents and as Crude drugs of natural origin that is obtained from plants, fire extinguishers. Tincture quillaia is used in preparation animals and mineral sources and their active chemical of coal tar emulsions. Saponins are toxic and their internal constituents are the core subject matter of pharmacognosy. use requires great care, and in some countries their internal These are also used for the treatment of various diseases use as frothing agents is restricted. Glycyrrhiza is used as besides being used in cosmetic, textile and food industries. sweetening agent for masking the taste of bitter and salty preparations. During the first half of the nineteenth century apothecaries Fixed oils and fats are used as emollients and as oint- stocked the crude drugs for the preparation of herbal tea ment bases and vehicles for other drugs. Volatile oils are mixtures, all kinds of tinctures, extracts and juices which in used as flavouring agents. turn were employed in preparing medicinal drops, syrups, Gelatin is used in coating of pills and tablets and in infusions, ointments and liniments. preparation of suppositories, as culture media in microbiol- The second half of the nineteenth century brought ogy and in preparation of artificial blood plasma. Animal with it a number of important discoveries in the newly fats like lard and suet are used as ointment bases. Beeswax developing fields of chemistry and witnessed the rapid is used as ointment base and thickening agent in oint- progress of this science. Medicinal plants became one of ments. Wool fat and wool alcohols are used as absorbable its major objects of interest and in time, phytochemists ointment bases. succeeded in isolating the pure active constituents. These Thus, from the above description it can be seen that active constituents replaced the crude drugs, with the many of the natural products have applications as phar- development of semisynthetic and synthetic medicine, they maceutical aids. became predominant and gradually pushed the herbal drugs, Discovery of new medicines from plants— which had formerly been used, into the background. It nutraceutical use versus drug development was a belief that the medicinal plants are of no importance and can be replaced by man-made synthetic drugs, which Little work was carried out by the pharmaceutical indus- try during 1950–1980s; however, during the 1980–1990s, in today’s scenario is no longer tenable. The drug plants, massive growth has occurred. This has resulted in new which were rapidly falling into disuse a century ago, are developments in the area of combinatorial chemistry, new regaining their rightful place in medicine. Today applied advances in the analysis and assaying of plant materials and science of pharmacognosy has a far better knowledge of the a heightened awareness of the potential plant materials as active constituents and their prominent therapeutic activ- drug leads by conservationists. New plant drug develop- ity on the human beings. Researchers are exploiting not ment programmes are traditionally undertaken by either only the classical plants but also related species all over the random screening or an ethnobotanical approach, a method world that may contain similar types of constituents. Just based on the historical medicinal/food use of the plant. like terrestrial germplasm, investigators had also diverted One reason why there has been resurgence in this area is their attention to marine flora and fauna, and wonderful 8 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY marine natural products and their activities have been chromatographical methodologies have added numerous studied. Genetic engineering and tissue culture biotech- complex and rare natural products to the armoury of phy- nology have already been successful for the production tomedicine. To mention a few, artemissinin as antimalarial, of genetically engineered molecules and biotransformed taxol as anticancer, forskolin as antihypertensive, rutin as natural products, respectively. vitamin P and capillary permeability factor and piperine Lastly, crude drugs and their products are of economi- as bioavailability enhancer are the recent developments. cal importance and profitable commercial products. When Natural products have also been used as drug substitutes these were collected from wild sources, the amount col- for the semisynthesis of many potent drugs. Ergotamine for lected could only be small, and the price commanded was dihydroergotamine in the treatment of migraine, podophyl- exorbitantly high. All this has now changed. Many of the lotoxin for etoposide, a potent antineoplastic drug or sola- industrially important species which produced equally large sodine and diosgenin that serve for the synthetic steroidal economic profits are cultivated for large-scale crop produc- hormones are the first-line examples of the recent days. tion. Drug plants, standardized extracts and the therapeu- In the Western world, as the people are becoming aware tically active pure constituents have become a significant of the potency and side effects of synthetic drugs, there is market commodity in the international trade. In the light an increasing interest in the plant-based remedies with a of these glorious facts, scope of pharmacognosy seems to basic approach towards the nature. The future developments be enormous in the field of medicine, bulk drugs, food of pharmacognosy as well as herbal drug industry would supplements, pharmaceutical necessities, pesticides, dyes, be largely dependent upon the reliable methodologies for tissue culture biotechnology, engineering and so on. identification of marker compounds of the extracts and Scope for doctoral graduates in pharmacognosy is going also upon the standardization and quality control of these to increase in the coming years. The pharmacognosist would extracts. Mother earth has given vast resources of medicinal serve in various aspects as follows: flora and fauna both terrestrial and marine, and it largely Academics: Teaching in colleges, universities, museums depends upon the forthcoming generations of pharma- and botanical gardens. cognosists and phytochemists to explore the wonder drug Private industry: Pharmaceutical companies, consumer molecules from this unexploited wealth. products testing laboratories and private commercial testing Little more needs to be said about the present-day impor- tance of medicinal plants, for it will be apparent from the laboratories, the herbal product industries, the cosmetic foregoing that the plant themselves either in the form of and perfume industries, etc. crude drugs or even more important, for the medicinally Government: Placement in federal agencies, such as the active materials isolated from them, have been, are and Drug Enforcement Agency, the Food and Drug Admin- always will be an important aid to the physician in the istration, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Medicinal treatment of disease. plant research laboratories, state agencies like forensic laboratories, environmental laboratories, etc. Undoubtedly, the plant kingdom still holds large number 1.6. PHARMACOGNOSTICAL SCHEME of species with medicinal value which have yet to be discov- To describe drugs in a systematic manner is known as ered. Lots of plants were screened for their pharmacological pharmacognostical scheme, which includes the following values like, hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective, hypotensive, headings: antiinflammatory, antifertility, etc. pharmacognosists with a multidisciplinary background are able to make valuable Biological Source contributions in the field of phytomedicines. This includes the biological names of plants or animals yielding the drug and family to which it belongs. Botanical 1.5. FUTURE OF PHARMACOGNOSY name includes genus and species. Often some abbrevia- Medicinal plants are of great value in the field of treatment tions are written after the botanical names, of the biologist and cure of disease. Over the years, scientific research responsible for the classification, for example, Acacia arabica has expanded our knowledge of the chemical effects and Willd. Here Willd indicates the botanist responsible for the composition of the active constituents, which determine classification or nomenclature. According to the biennial the medicinal properties of the plants. It has now been theory, the botanical name of any plant or animal is always universally accepted fact that the plant drugs and remedies written in italic form, and the first letter of a genus always are far safer than that of synthetic medicines for curing the appears in a capital later. complex diseases like cancer and AIDS. Enormous number Biological source also includes the family and the part of of alkaloids, glycosides and antibiotics have been isolated, the drug used. For example, biological source of senna is, identified and used as curative agents. The modern devel- Senna consists of dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia Delite, opments in the instrumental techniques of analysis and belonging to family Leguminosae.  HISTORY, DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9 Geographical Source Uses It includes the areas of cultivation, collection and route of It includes the pharmaceutical, pharmacological and bio- transport of a drug. logical activity of drugs or the diseases in which it is effective. Cultivation, Collection and Preparation Substituents These are important to mention as these are responsible for quality of a drug. The drug which is used during non-availability of origi- nal drug is known as substituent. It has the same type of Morphological Characters physiological active constituents; however, the percentage quantity of the drug available may be different. In case of organized drugs, the length, breadth, thickness, surface, colour, odour, taste, shape, etc. are covered under the heading morphological characters, whereas organolep- Adulterants tic properties (colour, odour, taste and surface) should be With the knowledge of the diagnostic characters of drugs, mentioned, if the drug is unorganized. the adulterants can be detected. One should have the criti- cal knowledge of substances known to be potential adul- Microscopical Characters terants. Most of the times the adulterants are completely devoid of physiologically active constituents, which leads This is one of the important aspects of pharmacognosy as it helps in establishing the correct identity of a drug. Under in the deterioration of the quality. For example, mixing this heading all the detailed microscopical characters of a of buffalo milk with goat milk is substitution, whereas drug is described. mixing of water in the milk is adulteration. In the first case, goat milk is substitute and in the second case water Chemical Constituents is adulterant. The most important aspect which determines the intrinsic Chemical Tests value of a drug to which it is used is generally described under this heading. It includes the chemical constituents The knowledge of chemical tests becomes more important present in the drug. These kinds of drugs are physiologi- in case of unorganized drugs whose morphology is not cally active. well defined.  CHAPTER 2 Alternative Systems of Medicine 2.1. INTRODUCTION more than they help in curing the disease by its serious toxic effects. On the contrary, traditional medicines are Pharmacognosy has been basically evolved as an applied much more preferred for being safe and without harmful science pertaining to the study of all types of drugs of natural effects and comparatively much cheaper than that of allo- origin. However, its subject matter is directed towards the pathic medicines. However, one fact must be accepted here modern allopathic medicine. During the course of develop- that the yelling humanity lastly run towards the modern ments, many civilizations have raised and perished but the allopathic treatment, which has developed wonderful tech- systems of medicines developed by them in various parts niques of diagnosis and highly effective drugs to provide of the world are still practised, and are also popular as the the best and effective treatment than any other system of alternative systems of medicine. These are the alternative medicine till date. systems in the sense that modern allopathic system has been globally acclaimed as the principal system of medicine, and 2.2. TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE so all the other systems prevalent and practised in various parts of the world are supposed to be alternative systems. SYSTEM The philosophy and the basic principles of these so called The use of herbs as medicine is mentioned in China and alternative systems might differ significantly from each Japan. The burial that dates back to 168 B.C. consists of other, but the fact cannot be denied that these systems have corpus of 11 medical works. The development in the field served the humanity for the treatment and management of of medicine had took a drastic change by A.D. 25–220 diseases and also for maintenance of good health. About but people were more confident than the earlier period to 80 percent of the world population still rely and use the understand the nature and they believed that the health and medicines of these traditional systems. the disease depended on the principles of natural order. Traditional Chinese medicine in China, Unani system The first herbal classic written in China was published in in Greece, Ayurvedic system in India, Amachi in Tibet or the Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.) called the Agriculture more recently Homoeopathy in Germany are these systems Emperors Materia Medica. The first plants discovered and of medicine which were once practised only in the respec- used were usually for digestive system disorders (i.e. Da tive areas or subcontinents of the world, are now popularly Huang), and slowly as more herbs were discovered the herbs practised all over the world. The World Health Organiza- became more useful for an increasing number of ailments, tion (WHO) is already taking much interest in indigenous and eventually the herbal tonics were created. systems of medicine and coming forward to exploit the Traditional Chinese medicine is based on the principle scientific validity of the medicines used since traditions. The of Yin and Yang theory. Yang represents the force of light revival of great interest in these age-old systems of health and Yin represents the forces of darkness. According to the care carries much meaning in the present scenarios. The yellow emperor, Yin and Yang is the foundation of the entire study of these alternative systems is necessary so as to grasp universe. It underlies everything in creation. It brings about and receive the best out of it to rescue humanity from the the development of parenthood; it is the root and source clutches of disease. Modern allopathy has developed many of life and death; and it is found with the temples of the sophisticated and costlier diagnostic methodologies which gods. In order to treat and cure diseases, one must search have made it quite exorbitant and beyond the abilities of for their origins. Heaven was created by the concentration common man. Many modern synthetic drugs may harm of Yang and the Earth by the concentration of Yin. Yang  ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE 11 stands for peace and serenity; Yin stands for confusion diseases. Salty herbs soften hardness, lubricate intestines and turmoil. Yang stands for destruction; Yin stands for and drain downward. These herbs are used to treat hard conservation. Yang brings about disintegration; Yin gives stool with constipation or hard swellings as in diseases shape to things. Water is an embodiment of Yin and fire like goitre. Bitter herbs induce bowel movements; reduce is an embodiment of Yang. Yang creates the air, while Yin fevers and hot sensations, dry dampness and clear heat. creates the senses, which belong to the physical body when They can also nourish the kidneys and are used to treat the physical body dies; the spirit is restored to the air, its damp diseases. After absorption, herbs can move in four natural environment. The spirit receives its nourishment different directions: upward towards the head, downward through the air, and the body receives its nourishment towards the lower extremities, inward towards the digestive through the senses. organs or outward towards the superficial regions of the Nature has four seasons and five elements. To grant long body. Upward-moving herbs are used for falling symp- life, these seasons and elements must store up the power toms like prolapsed organs. Downward-moving herbs are of creation in cold, heat, dryness, moisture and wind. Man used to push down up surging symptoms like coughing has five viscera in which these five climates are transformed and vomiting. Outward-moving herbs are used to induce into joy, anger, sympathy, grief and fear. The emotions of perspiration and treat superficial symptoms that are moving joy and anger are injurious to the spirit just as cold and towards the interior of the body. Inward movements of heat are injurious to the body. Violent anger depletes Yin; herbs induce bowel movements and promote digestion. violent joy depletes Yang. When rebellious emotions rise to Each herb will have a corresponding meridian or meridians Heaven, the pulse expires and leaves the body and when to which it will correspond to. For example, herbs that are joy and anger are without moderation, then cold and heat active against respiratory tract disorders move to the lungs exceed all measure, and life is no longer secure. Yin and and can be used for asthma or cough. Yang should be respected to an equal extent. When Yang is the stronger, the body is hot, the pores are 2.3. INDIAN SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE closed, and people begin to pant; they become boisterous and coarse and do not perspire. They become feverish, their The WHO estimates that about 80% of the populations mouths are dry and sore, their stomachs feel tight, and they living in the developing countries rely exclusively on tra- die of constipation. When Yang is the stronger, people can ditional medicine for their primary health care needs. India endure winter but not summer. When Yin is stronger, the has an ancient heritage of traditional medicine. Indian tra- body is cold and covered with perspiration. People realize ditional medicine is based on different systems including they are ill; they tremble and feel chilly. When they feel Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani. With the emerging interest in chilled, their spirits become rebellious. Their stomachs can the world to adopt and study the traditional system and no longer digest food and they die. When Yin is stronger, to exploit their potentials based on different health care people can endure summer but not winter. Thus, Yin and systems, the evaluation of the rich heritage of the traditional Yang are alternate. Their ebbs and surges vary, and so does medicine is essential. the character of the diseases. The treatment is to harmonize Almost in all the traditional medicines, the medicinal both. When one is filled with vigour and strength, Yin and plants play a crucial role in the traditional medicine. India Yang are in proper harmony. has a rich heritage of traditional medicine and the tradi- tional health care system have been flourishing for many Treatment centuries. In India, the Ayurvedic system of medicine developed Every herb has its own properties which include its energy, an extensive use of medicines from plants dating from its flavour, its movement and its related meridians to which at least 1000 B.C. Western medicine continues to show it is connected to. The four types of energies are cold, the influence of ancient practices. For example, cardiac cool, warm and hot. Usually cold or cool herbs will treat glycosides from Digitalis purpurea, morphine from Papaver fever, thirst, sore throat and general heat diseases. Hot or somniferum, reserpine from Rauwolfia species, and quinine warm herbs will treat cold sensation in the limbs, cold from Cinchona species and artemisinin, an active antimalarial pain and general cold diseases. The five flavours of herbs compound from Artemisia annua, etc., show the influence are pungent, sour, sweet, salty and bitter. Pungent herbs of traditional medicine in Western medicine. are generally used to induce perspiration and promote circulation of both blood and Qi. Sour herbs exert three Ayurveda—The Indian System of Medicine functions: constrict, obstruct and solidify. These herbs are good to stop perspiration, diarrhoea, seminal emission and Ayurvedic system of medicine is accepted as the oldest leucorrhoea. Sweet herbs also exert three main functions: written medical system that is also supposed to be more nourishing deficiency, harmonizing other herbs or reduce effective in certain cases than modern therapies. The origin toxicity, relieve pain and slow the progression of acute of Ayurveda has been lost in prehistoric antiquity, but 12 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY their concepts were nurtured between 2500 and 500 B.C. and autonomous nervous system. The factors responsible in India. for digestion, metabolism, tissue building, heat production, Ayurveda is accepted to be the oldest medical system, blood pigmentation, activities of the endocrine glands and which came into existence in about 900 B.C. The word energy are the representatives of pitta. The factors respon- Ayurveda means Ayur meaning life and Veda meaning sible for strengthening the stomach and the joints, providing science. Thus, Ayurveda literally means science of life. The firmness to the limbs, and refreshing the sense organs are Indian Hindu mythology states four Veda written by the the representatives of kapha. There are some special areas Aryans: Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. in the body in which each dosha predominates, namely, The Ayurveda is said to be an Upaveda (part) of Atharva the chest for kapha, digestive organs for pitta and the large Veda. Charaka Samhita (1900 B.C.) is the first recorded book intestine for vata. with the concept of practice of Ayurveda. This describes The dhatus are the body constituents and form the basic 341 plants and plant products used in medicine. Sushruta structure of the body; each one having its own functions. Samhita (600 B.C.) was the next ayurvedic literature that The dhatus are seven in number: rasa (food juices), rakta has special emphasis on surgery. It described 395 medicinal (haemoglobin portion of the blood), mamsa (muscle tissue), plants, 57 drugs of animal origin, 4 minerals and metals as medas (fat tissue), asthi (bone tissue), majja (bone marrow) and shukra (semen). therapeutic agents. Malas are the by-products of the dhatus, partly used by the Basic principles of ayurveda body and partly excreted as waste matter after the process According to ancient Indian philosophy, the universe is of digestion is over. These play a supporting role while composed of five basic elements or pancha bhutas: prithvi they are in the body, and when they are eliminated, their (earth), jal (water), teja (fire), vayu (air) and akash (space). supporting role is finished. The useful elements absorbed Everything in the universe, including food and the bodies by the body are retained as prasad (useful matter), while were derived from these bhutas. A fundamental harmony those excreted are known as malas (waste matter). The chief therefore exists between the macrocosm (the universe) malas are mutra (urine), shakrit (faeces) and sweda (perspira- and the microcosm (the individual). The Pancha Bhuta tion). The doshas, dhatus and malas should be in a state of theory and the human body: The human body is in a state perfect equilibrium for the body to remain healthy. Any of continuous flux or dynamic equilibrium. The pancha imbalance among these constituents results in ill health bhutas are represented in the human body as the doshas, and disease. dhatus and malas. Diagnosis There are three doshas in the body. They are vata, pitta and kapha. There are direct equivalents for these three doshas, Diagnosis in Ayurveda implies a moment-to-moment moni- known as tridoshas. However, the factors responsible for toring of the interaction between order (health) and disorder movement and sensation in a single cell/whole body are (disease). The disease process is a reaction between the the representatives of vata; it explains the entire biological bodily humours (doshas) and tissues (dhatus) and is influenced phenomena that are controlled by the functions of central by the environment. The classical clinical examination in Ayurveda is called ashta sthana pariksha (eight-point diagnosis) and includes an assessment of the state of the doshas as well as various physical signs. The eight-point diagnoses are nadi pariksha (pulse diagnosis), mutra pariksha (urine examination), vata/ Kapha sparsha (Nervous system assessment), Pitta/drik (assessment water and earth of digestive fire and metabolic secretions), kapha/akriti (mucous and mucoid secretions assessment), mala pariksha (stool examination), jihva pariksha (tongue examination) and Pitta fire and water shabda pariksha (examination of body sounds). Treatment In Ayurveda, before starting the treatment, a person’s Vata constitutional type should be determined. Drugs are pre- air and ether scribed based on the patient’s body type as well as on what disease or disturbance of the doshas they are suffering from. Everything that might affect the patient’s health, including their activities, the time of the day, and the season should be taken into consideration. In other words, patients are Fig. 2.1 The seats of three doshas: Vata, Pitta and Kapha looked at as individuals as well as in relation to their  ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE 13 environment. Ayurvedic treatment attempts to establish a Vipaka is the quality a substance takes on after it has been balance among the bodily humours of vata, pitta and kapha, acted on by the body (after digestion). The three types of as well as to improve digestion and elimination of ama vipaka are madhura (increases kapha), sour (increases pitta) (undigested food). and katu (increases vata). The type of food responsible for Ayurvedic therapy often begins with shodhana (cleansing) madhura, sour and katu are carbohydrates, proteins and in which toxins, emotional or physical, are eliminated or fats, respectively. neutralized. Once shodhana is completed, shamana (palliative Prabhava is the activity or influence of a drug in the treatment) is used to reduce the intensity of a disease and body. The drugs may have the same rasa, guna, veerya and balance the disordered doshas. Finally, rasayana (rejuvenation therapy) is used to maintain health and reduce the negative vipaka but the prabhava may be different due to the chemi- effects of disease. cal composition. In Ayurveda, vegetable, animal, mineral substances or Branches of ayurveda metals could be used for their healing effects. The metals Ayurveda maintains that there is a definite relationship mentioned as drugs were gold, silver, copper, lead, tin between illness and the metaphysical state of an individual. and iron. Along with these substances elements from the earth, like arsenic, antimony, sand and lime, were Its approach to medical treatment is to focus on the person also used. Earlier, 600 medicinal plants were recorded rather than the disease. in Ayurveda, and it has increased to more than 1200 Ayurveda has eight branches: Kaya Chikitsa (Medicine), medicinal plants. Salya Chikitsa (Surgery), Salakya Chikitsa (ENT treatment), Bala Chikitsa (Paediatric treatment), Jara Chikitsa (treatment Properties of herbs related to genetics), Rasayana Chikitsa (treatment with Ayurvedic herbs are described and classified according to chemicals), Vajikarama Chikitsa (treatment with rejuvenation five major properties: rasa (taste), guna (physicochemical and aphrodisiacs), Graham Chikitsa (planetary effects) and properties), veerya (potency), vipaka (postdigestive effect) Visha Chikitsa (toxicology). and prabhava (unique effect of the drug). As the digestive Tibetan system of medicine which is the main stay of process begins, the food or drug is acted upon by the agnis the majority of Tibetan people not only in India, but in (various digestive juices) and enzymes. neighbouring countries too was developed out of Ayurveda, Rasa is divided into six major types: madhura (sweet), or was influenced by it. Researches in traditional medicine amla (sour), lavana (salty), katu (pungent), tikta (bitter), and have confirmed the efficacy of most of the natural sub- kashaya (astringent). Each taste is made up of a combination stances used by the practitioners of Ayurveda. The principle, of two of the five basic elements (earth, water, fire, air and treatment and philosophy of Ayurveda are one of the best ether). Each taste has their own effects on the three bodily systems that fulfill the needs of human beings. It has so doshas (vata, pitta and kapha). many good prescriptions without many side effects. Thus, Ayurveda formulates the holistic approach of treatment Rasa Elements Action by subjecting the body as a whole giving least importance Madhura Earth + Increases kapha, decreases pitta to rogabalam. This may be the reason for time-consuming (sweet) water treatment in Ayurveda, but the results last long. Amla (sour) Earth + fire Increases kapha/pitta, decreases vata Lavana (salty) Water + fire Increases kapha/pitta, decreases vata 2.4. SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE Katu (pungent) Fire + air Increases vata/pitta, decreases kapha Tikta (bitter) Air + ether Increases vata, decreases kapha/pitta Siddha medicine is practised in Southern India. The origin of the Tamil language is attributed to the sage Agasthya, and Kashaya Air + earth Increases vata, decreases kapha/pitta (astringent) the origin of Siddha medicine is also attributed to him. Before the Aryan occupation of the Sind region and the Guna represents the physical aspects of a medicinal sub- Gangetic plain, there existed in the southern India, on the stance. There are five major classes of guna, and each class banks of the river Cauvery and Tamirapani, a civilization corresponds to one of the major elements (mahabhutas): which was highly organized. unctuousness corresponds with water; heaviness with earth; 1. This civilization has a system of medicine to deal with keenness and sharpness with fire; dryness with air; and light problems of sanitation and treatment of diseases. This with ether. Gunas are generally considered in pairs: cold/ is the Siddha system of medicine. The therapeutics of hot, wet/dry, soft/hard and stable/unstable, etc. Siddha medicines consists mainly of the use of metals Veerya represents the active principle or potency of a drug. and minerals whereas in the earlier Ayurveda. The two divisions are sita veerya (indicates kapha varag) and 2. There is mention of mercury, sulphur, copper, arsenic ushna veerya (indicates pitta varag); vata remains buffer. and gold used as therapeutic agents. 14 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY Principle of Siddha system of medicine The seven dhatus are as follows: The universe consists of two essential entities: matter and 1. Rasa (lymph). energy. The Siddhas call them Siva (male) and Shakti (female, 2. Kurudhi (blood). creation). Matter cannot exist without energy inherent in it 3. Tasai (muscle). and vice versa. The two coexist and are inseparable. They 4. Kozhuppu (adipose tissue). are the primordial elements (bhutas), and are not to be 5. Elumbu (bone). confused with modern chemistry. Their names are munn 6. Majjai (marrow). (solid), neer (fluid), thee (radiance), vayu (gas) and aakasam 7. Sukkilam and artavam (male and female hormones). (ether). These five elements (bhutas) are present in every Method of treatment substance, but in different proportions. Earth, water, fire, The treatments for the imbalance of the Tridoshas are made air and ether are manifestations of five elements. up of the five elements. The drugs are made up of the five The human being is made up of these five elements, elements. By substituting a drug of the same constituents in different combinations. The physiological function in (guna), the equilibrium is restored. The correction of the the body is mediated by three substances (dravyas), which imbalance is made by substituting the drug, which is pre- are made up of the five elements. They are vatham, pitham dominately of the opposite nature. An example of vatham and karpam. In each and every cell of the body these three imbalance is cold, dry; thus the treatment will be oily and doshas coexist and function harmoniously. The tissues are warmth. For inactivity of limbs, massage and activity are called dhatus. Vatham is formed by aakasam and vayu. Vatham prescribed. If pitham dosha is increased, warmth is produced; controls the nervous actions such as movement, sensation, to decrease pitham, sandalwood is administered, internally or externally because of its cold characteristics. etc. Pitham is formed by thee and controls the metabolic activity of the body, digestion, assimilation and warmth, etc. Five type of vayu are as follows: Karpam is formed by munn and neer and controls stability. 1. Prana: located in mouth and nostrils (inhaled); aids When their equilibrium is upset, disease sets in. ingestion. 2. Apana: located at anal extremity (expelled); elimination, Tridoshas according to Siddha medicine expulsion. The tridoshas are involved in all functions of the body, 3. Samana: equalizer, aids digestion. physical, mental and emotional. 4. Vyana: circulation of blood and nutrients. 1. Vatham: 5. Udana: functions in upper respiratory passages.  Characteristic is dryness, lightness, coldness and Siddha pharmacy motility. Mercury: Mercury occupies a very high place in Siddha  Formed by aakasam and vayu, controls the nervous medicine. It is used as a catalytic agent in many of its action that constitute movement, activity, sensation, medicines. When mercury is used, it is used in combina- etc. Vatham predominates in the bone. tion with sulphur. The addition of sulphur is to control  Vatham predominates in first one-third of life when the fluidity of mercury—this converts to mercuric sulphite activities, growth, sharpness of function of sense which is insoluble in mineral acids. are greater. Siddhas used five forms of mercury: 2. Pitham: 1. Mercury metal—rasam.  Heat—mover of the nervous force of the body. 2. Red sulphide of mercury—lingam.  Formed by thee, controls the metabolic activity 3. Mercury chloride—veeram. of the body, digestion, warmth, lustre, intellect, 4. Mercury subchloride (mercury chloride)—pooram. 5. Red oxide of mercury—rasa chenduram. Ordinary rasa assimilation, etc. Pitham predominates in the tissue chenduram (red oxide of mercury) is a poison, but when blood. processed as poorna chandrodayam according to Siddha  Pitham predominates in the second one third of practice, it becomes ambrosia. life. Classifications of Siddha medicine: 3. Karpam: 1. Uppu (Lavanam): Drugs that dissolve in water and  Smoothness, firmness, viscidity, heaviness. decrepitated when put into fire giving off vapours  Formed by munn and neer, controls the stability of (water soluble inorganic compounds). There are 25 the body such as strength, potency, smooth working varieties and are called kara-charam, salts and alkalis. of joints. Karpam predominates in other tissues. 2. Pashanam: Drugs that do not dissolve in water but  Karpam predominates in the last one-third of life. give off vapour when put into fire (water insoluble Diminishing activity of various organs and limbs. inorganic compounds).  ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE 15 3. Uparasam: Drugs that do not dissolve in water (chemi- who freed medicine from the realm of superstition and cals similar to Pashanam but differing in their actions) magic, and gave it the status of science. The theoretical such as mica, magnetic iron, antimony, zinc sulphate, framework of Unani medicine is based on the teachings of iron pyrites, ferrous sulphate. Hippocrates. After him, a number of other Greek scholars 4. Loham: Metals and minerals alloys (water insoluble, followed the system considerably. Among them Galen melt in fire, solidify on cooling) such as gold, silver (131–212 A.D.) was the one to stabilize its foundation, copper, iron, tin and lead. on which Arab physicians like Raazes (850–925 A.D.) and 5. Rasam: Drugs that are soluble (sublime when put in Avicenna (980–1037 A.D.) constructed an imposing edifice. fire, and changes into small crystals), such as mercury Unani medicine got its importance among the other systems amalgams and compounds of mercury, arsenic. of traditional medicine in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Persia, India, 6. Gandhakam: Sulphur insoluble in water, burns off China and other Middle East and Far East countries. In when put into fire. India, Arabs introduced Unani system of medicine, and 7. Ratnas and uparatnas: Thirteen varieties are described, soon it enriched in India. When Mongols ravaged Persian such as coral, lapis-lazuli, pearls, diamonds, jade, and central Asian cities, scholars and physicians of Unani emerald, ruby, sapphire, opal, vaikrantham, rajavantham, medicine fled to India. The Delhi Sultans, the Khiljis, spatikam harin mani. the Tughlaqs and the Mughal Emperors provided state The common preparations of Siddha medicines are: patronage to the scholars and even enrolled some as state 1. Bhasma (Calcined metals and minerals). employees and court physicians. During the 13th and 17th 2. Churna (powders). century, Unani medicine was firmly rooted in India by Abu 3. Kashaya (decoctions). Bakr Bin Ali Usman Kasahani, Sadruddin Damashqui, 4. Lehya (confections). Bahwabin Khwas Khan, Ali Geelani, Akabl Arzani and 5. Ghrita (ghee preparations) and taila (oil prepara- Mohammad Hoshim Alvi Khan. Unani considers the human body to be made up of seven tions). components. Arkan (elements), mizaj (temperaments), aklath 6. Chunna (metallic preparations which become alka- (humours), anza (organs), arawh (spirits), Quo (faculties) line). and afal (functions), each of which has close relation to 7. Mezhugu (waxy preparations). the state of health of an individual. A physician takes into 8. Kattu (preparation that are impervious to water and account all these factors before diagnosing and prescribing flames. treatment. Sulphur: Calcined sulphur or red oxide of sulphur can Unani medicine is based on the Greece philosophy. be obtained by solidifying it first by the Siddha method of According to Basic Principles of Unani, the body is made purification. In small doses, it conserves the body, and it is up of the four basic elements, i.e. Earth, Air, Water and diaphoretic and alterative. Therapeutic ally is used as both Fire, which have different Temperaments, i.e. Cold, Hot, external and internal remedy against skin diseases, rheu- Wet and Dry. After mixing and interaction of four ele- matic arthritis, asthma, jaundice and blood poisoning. ments, a new compound having new temperament comes Arsenic: As per Siddha kalpa, purified and consolidated into existence, i.e. Hot Wet, Hot Dry, Cold Wet and Cold arsenic is effective against all fevers, asthma and anaemia. Dry. The body has the simple and compound organs, Gold: It is alterative, nervine tonic, antidote to poison and which got their nourishment through four humours, i.e. a powerful sexual stimulant. Very little is absorbed in the blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The humour system. Care is taken to see that calcinations of gold is freed also assigned temperament as blood is, i.e. hot and wet; from metallic state and lustre to ensure safe absorption in Phlegm is cold and hot, yellow bile is hot and dry and the system. black bile is cold and dry. Health is a state of body in which Thus, these drugs and metallic minerals can be screened there is equilibrium in the humours and functions of the for its antiviral, immune stimulant and immuno-modulator body are normal in accordance to its own temperament activity. As HIV negative people have taken Kalpha drugs for and the environment. rejuvenation and long life, it is believed that if Kayakapla When the equilibrium of the humours is disturbed and therapy is thoroughly investigated using modern parameters, functions of the body are abnormal, in accordance to its own it might lead one to find whether these drugs could be temperament and environment, that state is called disease. used in preventative or curative benefits in AIDS or other Unani medicine believes in promotion of health, prevention diseases. of diseases and cure. Health of human is based on the six essentials (Asbabe Sitta Zaroorya), if these are followed health is maintained; otherwise, there will be diseases. 2.5. UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE Six essentials are atmospheric air, drinks and food, sleep Unani system of medicine is originated in Greece by the and wakefulness, excretion and retention, physical activity Greek philosopher, physician Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.), and rest and mental activity and rest. 16 TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY Diagnosis more than an outward reflection of the body’s inner fight Diseases are mainly diagnosed with the help of pulse (nabz), to overcome illness: it is not a manifestation of the illness physical examination of the urine and stool. Also, patients itself. This law of similar for curing diseases has being in are examined systematically to make the diagnosis easy as use since the time of Hippocrates, father of medicine. But spot diagnosis with the help of simple, modern gadgets. it was Dr Hahnemann who developed it in to a complete system of therapeutics enunciating the law and its applica- Treatment tion in 1810. Diseases are treated in the following ways: 1. Ilajbil Tadbeer (Regimental Therapy): Some drugless Fundamental Principles of Homoeopathy regimens are advised for the treatment of certain Every science has certain basic principles that guide the ailments, i.e. exercise, massage, hamam (Turkish whole system. Homoeopathy as a science of medical treat- bath), Douches (Cold and Hot) and the Regimen ment has a philosophy of its own, and its therapeutics is for Geriatrics. based on certain fundamental principles that are quite 2. Ilajbil Ghiza (Dietotherapy): Different diets are recom- distinct and different from those of other school of medical mended for the patients of different diseases. science. These fundamental principles were discussed by 3. Ilajbil Dava (Pharmaco therapy): The basic concept of Hahnemann in different sections of his medicine and treatment is to correct the cause of the disease that philosophy. may be abnormal temperament due to: They are as follows:  Environmental factors  Abnormal humours either due to internal causes 1. Law of Similia. or external causes which may be pathogenic 2. Law of Simplex. microorganism, through (a) drugs of opposite 3. Law of minimum. temperament to the temperament of the disease 4. Drug proving. that is called Ilaj-bil-zid or (b) drugs of similar 5. Drug dynamization or potentization. temperament as of the temperament of the disease 6. Vital force. that is called as Ilaj-bil-misl 7. Acute and Chronic Diseases. 8. Individualization. 4. Ilajbil Yad (Surgery). 9. Direction of cure. The drugs used are mostly of the plant origin. Some drugs of animal and mineral origin are also used. Patients Law of similia are treated either by single drug (crude drugs) or by com- The therapeutic law on which homoeopathy is based is pound drugs (formulations of single drugs). Simillia Similibus Curentur, which means ‘Let likes be cured There are two types of compound drugs used in the by likes’. In this art of healing, the medicine administered treatment of the diseases, i.e. classical compound drugs to a diseased individual is such that if given to a healthy which are in use for the hundreds and thousands years person it produces same sufferings (diseases) as found in and patent/proprietary compound drugs which have been the diseases individual. Thus, the symptoms of the diseased formulated by the individuals or institutions as per their individual are to be matched with the pathogenesis of the research and experiences. Unani system of medicine is one medicine, and the medicines which are most similar, viz. of the oldest systems of medicine in the world; it is still Simillimum is selected and administered with certainty to popular and practised in Indian subcontinent and other cure. parts of the world. Law of simplex 2.6. HOMEOPATHIC SYSTEM OF Simple and single drugs should be prescribed at a time. MEDICINE Thus, medicines are proved on healthy human beings singly and in simple form without admixture of any other Homoeopathy is a specialized system of therapeutics, substance. developed by Dr Samuel Christian Friedrich Hahnemann (1755–1843), a German physician, chemist and a phar- Law of minimum macist, based on natural law of healing: Similia Similibus Drugs are administered in a minimum quantity because of Curantur, which means ‘Likes are cured by likes’. hypersensitivity in disease and the action of drug is always Homois means like (similar) and pathos means treatment. directed towards normal by virtue of altered receptivity of Thus, Homoeopathy is a system of treating diseases or suf- tissue to stimuli in disease. The medicines are just required fering by the administration of drugs that possess power to arouse a reaction in the body. If they are given in large of producing similar suffering (diseases) in healthy human doses, they cause physiological action producing unwanted beings. Dr Hahnemann believed that symptoms are no side effects and organic damage. The minutest quantity  ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE 17 of medicine helps it to reach the disease, which is of very Vital force subtle in nature. The curative action of drug can only Disease is nothing but the disharmonious flow of the vital be expected without any unwanted aggravation by using force giving rise to abnormal sensation and functions (symp- minimum quantity of medicine. toms and signs). In order to restore the health, the disor- Drug proving dered vital force is to be brought back to normal. Disease and health are two different quantitative states of this vital To apply drugs for therapeutic purposes, their curative force of living being, and cure is to be affected here. Vital power should be known. The curative power of a drug is force has the following characteristics: spiritual, autocratic, its ability to produce disease symptoms when employed on automatic, dynamic, unintelligent and instinctive. a healthy person. The curative power of a drug is known by its pathogenesis and is ascertained by proving the drug Acute and chronic diseases singly on healthy human being. This serves the only true The diseases are classified into these types depending record of the curative properties of drug. upon their onset, nature of progress and termination of diseases. Drug dynamization or potentization Disease is a disturbance or deviation in the normal har- Individualization monious flow of life force which is dynamic in nature. No two individuals are alike in the world, so the diseases Now medicine used to encounter disease should also have affecting individuals can never be the same assuming the dynamic action to act on the dynamic disturbance of life unique individual picture in each diseased individual. force. Therefore, the drugs are dynamized or potentized Thus, medicines can never be prescribed on the basis of liberating their dynamic curative power which lies dormant the name of the disease without individualizing each case in them. This dynamization is done by the process of of disease. Trituration (in case of insoluble substances) or Succession Direction of cure (in case of soluble substances). Dr. Hering states that ‘cure takes place within outward Preparation of potencies from above to downward and the symptoms disappears in The potency can be prepared by three different scales, like the reverse of their appearance’. If the direction is reverse decimal scale, centesimal scale and millesimal scale. of that stated then it is not cure but suppression which has occurred. Decimal scale This scale was introduced by Dr Constantive Bering. In 2.7. AROMATHERAPY this scale, the first potency should contain 1/10 part of original drug. The second potency will contain 1/10 part The word aromatherapy means treatment using scents. It refers of the first potency, and so on. The potency in this scale is to the use of essential oils in Holistic healing to improve denoted by suffixing the letter ‘X’ to the number indicating health and emotional well being, and in restoring balance the potency, i.e. the first potency is 1X, the second potency to the body. Essential oils are aromatic essences extracted is 2X, and so on. from plants, flowers, trees, fruit, bark, grasses and seeds. There are