Super Graphic Ultra Modern Quarter 1 Exam Reviewer.pdf
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CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Collaborative effort ni cheska, arfred, te tiu, rheeze 🎀 Things to Know: Taasay siya so if ur looking for something specific, Ctrl + F and search for the key terms (sa desktop ra ni applicable i think...
CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Collaborative effort ni cheska, arfred, te tiu, rheeze 🎀 Things to Know: Taasay siya so if ur looking for something specific, Ctrl + F and search for the key terms (sa desktop ra ni applicable i think). Outline Follows: ○ Heading 1 - Subject ○ Heading 2 - Topic ○ Heading 3 - Subtopic Also, if lisod i navigate ang outline, i double click ang subject nga naa sa header nga gusto nimo ireview. Hyperlink na to the start of every subject. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL CHEMISTRY Legend: - Related to the topic ★ - Kind of off topic but was mentioned so it might come up ❖ - To remember IDENTIFICATION AND SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES USING ITS PROPERTIES IDENTIFICATION Review of Important Terms Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass. Atom - the smallest unit of an element. Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance that retains all the properties of that substance. Substance - a form of matter that has a definite composition and distinct properties. Element - a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means Compound - substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions Mixture - a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities. ○ Homogeneous Mixture - the composition of the mixture is the same throughout ○ Heterogeneous Mixture - the composition is not uniform CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Clearing Up Confusion Element vs. Compound? ○ An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances whereas a compound is a combination of two or more elements that are united in fixed proportions. Ex. Water is a compound that is composed of 2 hydrogens and 1 oxygen element. Water can only be made by this ratio or proportion between hydrogen and oxygen, meaning water can only ever have 2 hydrogens per 1 oxygen. It would not be water if the compound had more/less than 2 hydrogens and more than 1 oxygen. Mixture vs. Substance? ○ A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that retain its distinct identities while a substance is a form of matter that has a definite composition and distinct properties. The main difference between the two is that mixtures are physical combinations of 2 or more substances, whereas substances are only made up of one kind of matter that are chemically bonded and have a definite composition (ex. H2O needs to have a 2 hydrogen per 1 oxygen ratio to be called water). Physical Properties - can be measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a substance. Color - appearance of an object Conductivity - ability of a material to the human eye. to conduct heat or electricity. Density - the mass of a substance Solubility - ability of a substance per unit volume. to dissolve in a solvent. Melting Point - temperature at Mass - the amount of matter in which a solid becomes a liquid. an object. Boiling Point - temperature at Volume - the amount of space which a liquid becomes a gas. an object occupies. Hardness - resistance of a Length - the distance between material to scratching. two points. Shape - the external form of an object. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Chemical Properties - describes a substance’s ability to undergo chemical reactions and form new substances. Flammability - the ability of a Acidity/Basicity - the ability of a substance to burn in the substance to donate or accept presence of oxygen. protons. Oxidation - the ability of a Radioactivity - the ability of an substance to combine with unstable atomic nucleus to oxygen. spontaneously emit radiation. Intensive Properties - property that does not depend on the amount of matter present. Physical Properties can be both extensive or intensive. Chemical Properties can only be intensive. Ex. of intensive properties ○ Flammability ○ Density ○ Oxidation ○ Solubility ○ Acidity/Basicity ○ Melting Point ○ Radioactivity ○ Boiling Point ○ Color ○ Hardness ○ Conductivity Extensive Properties - property that depends on the amount of matter present. Physical Properties can be both extensive or intensive. Ex. of extensive properties ○ Mass ○ Length ○ Volume ○ Shape SEPARATION TECHNIQUES Solid-Solid Mixtures Mechanical Picking - a technique in which a mixture is separated by picking them out by hand. Sieving - the process of removing particles from a mixture based on differences in particle size. Fine particles are separated from bigger particles by using a sieve. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Magnetic Separation - the process of separating components of mixtures by using a magnet to attract magnetic substances and leave the non-magnetic substances. Density Separation - used to separate solids with different densities Sublimation - one of the components sublimes (converts from solid state to gaseous state without forming liquid) upon heating, leaving behind the other components that are non-sublimable. Solid-Liquid Mixtures Filtration - the process in which solid particles in a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by the use of a filter medium (ex. Filter paper) that permits the fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles. Sedimentation and Decantation - The process of heavier particles of an insoluble solid settling down in a liquid is known as sedimentation. Decantation is the process of removing liquid from a container without disturbing the sediment. Evaporation - involves heating the solution until the solvent evaporates and turns into gas leaving behind the solid residue. It evaporates the liquid in order to leave the solid substance behind. Distillation - Distillation is used to separate a mixture of two substances with different boiling points. Distillation involves boiling the solution and then condensing the vapor back into a liquid by cooling it down. Similar to evaporation, but instead of leaving the evaporated liquid into gas, it turns back the vapor into liquid through condensation. Centrifugation - a technique used for the separation of particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed. The particles are suspended in a liquid medium and placed in a centrifuge tube. The tube is then placed in a rotor and spun at a defined speed. Liquid-Liquid Mixtures Separating Funnel - A separating funnel is a funnel that is used to separate immiscible liquids. Liquids that do not mix with each other are said to be immiscible (Ex. Oil and Water). Immiscible liquids have a clear line of separation between them due to difference in density. The separating funnel’s purpose is to separate the denser liquid from the lighter one through a tap. The tap will be CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL opened to let the denser liquid pass through until it is completely separated from the lighter one. Fractional Distillation - a mixture of liquids is boiled and the resulting vapors travel up a glass tube called a “fractionating column” and separate. As the vapors rise, they condense at different temperatures and different heights in the fractionating column. The process of fractional distillation is used to separate mixtures of miscible liquids (liquids that mix with each other ex. Crude oil). Chromatography - a method by which a mixture is separated by distributing its components between two phases. The stationary phase (Ex. porous material like filter paper) remains fixed in place while the mobile phase (Ex. liquid medium like alcohol) carries the components of the mixture through the medium being used. Because of the differences in factors such as the solubility of certain components in the mobile phase and the strength of their affinities for the stationary phase, some components will move faster than others, thus facilitating the separation of the components within that mixture. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Gas-Gas Mixtures Diffusion - the movement of molecules in a fluid from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Cryogenic Distillation - a process of separation of gaseous mixture, using simple distillation, at high pressure and low temperature. It is used to separate gasses from air. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL CONSUMER PRODUCTS Types of Ingredients in a bottle of shampoo. carrying agent opacifier active ingredient preservative surfactant stabilizer thickener fragrance, colorant and other emollient/conditioner additives Active vs. Inactive Ingredient Active Ingredient - enables a product to do what it claims. Inactive Ingredient - any non-active ingredient in a product. Arrangement of Ingredients According to the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI): arrangement of ingredients is in descending order by concentration. However, some products which list first their active ingredients arrange the rest of inactive ingredients alphabetically. ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES Basic Structure of an Atom: 1. Proton (positive) - p+ 2. Neutron (neutral) - n0 3. Electron (negative) - e- CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Atomic Number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element determines the identity of an atom In a neutral atom, p+ = e- Mass Number (a) Atomic number + no. of neutrons No. of protons + no. of neutrons How To Represent An Atom Hyphen notation - carbon-12 or C-12 Standard nuclear notation Isotopes Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers Mass Number In The Periodic Table Mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes Measured in atomic mass units (amu) Isotopes And Radioactivity Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. Radioactivity - the release of energy from the decay of the nuclei of certain kinds of atoms and isotopes. Types of Radioactivity: CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL ○ Alpha Decay - loses two neutrons and two protons ○ Beta Decay - loses 1 electron ○ Gamma Decay - loses 1 photon Half-life - amount of time that it takes for half of the sample atoms to decay. Practical Uses of Isotopes 1. Environmental Science a. Radiometric Dating - Radioactive isotopes like carbon-14 and uranium are used to determine the age of fossils, artifacts, and geological formations. 2. Food and Agriculture a. Food irradiation - the process of exposing foodstuffs to gamma rays to kill bacteria that can cause food-borne disease, and to increase shelf-life. (Co-60 or Cs-137) b. Pest control - Radioactive isotopes can sterilize male insects, preventing reproduction and controlling populations.(Co-60) CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL 3. Health a. Radioactive isotopes are used for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Technetium-99m is used in thyroid scans. Iodine-123 and 131 can also be used. 4. Industry a. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate electricity. REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS CHEMICAL FORMULA a symbolic representation of a compound’s chemical composition. an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements. Types of Chemical Formula 1. Molecular Formula - shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. Ex. H2O. 2. Empirical Formula - shows which elements are present and the simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms, but necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. Ex. hydrazine N2H4 → empirical formula: NH2 ❖ Sometimes, the molecular formula and empirical formula are the same. Ex. H2O, NH3, CO2 3. Structural Formula - shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule. Ex. H-O-H, Structural formula of H2O. 4. Condensed Formula - a simplified version of the structural formula that omits the lines that represent the bonds. Ex. ethanol (C2H6O) → CH3CH2OH from: CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL 5. Others: Ball-and-stick model, Space-filling model NAMING COMPOUNDS AND WRITING FORMULA IONIC COMPOUNDS chemical compounds composed of oppositely charged ions (metals and nonmetals) held together by electrostatic forces. electrons are transferred from one atom to another, resulting in the formation of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). ❖ Remember that Ionic compounds contain IONS (Cation and Anions, which are positively and negatively charged respectively) Naming Ionic Compounds Monoatomic Ions For MONOATOMIC CATIONS with only 1 cation, “name of element + ion”. Ex. Na+, sodium ion. For MONOATOMIC CATIONS with only 2 cations, there are two naming systems namely: Stock System and Common System. For Stock System: "element name (charge in Roman numeral) + ion, Ex. Iron with 2+ charge, Iron (II) ion. For Common System: greater charge: stem of the element + -ic + ion lower charge: stem of the element + -ous + ion + Ex. Iron with 2 charge, Ferrous Ion Iron with 3+ charge, Ferric Ion ❖ List of some (Common System) stem names to remember: Iron: Ferr- Cobalt: Cobalt- Copper: Cupr- Mercury: Mercur- Chromium: Chrom- Tin: Stann- Manganese: Mangan- Lead: Plumb- For MONOATOMIC ANIONS, “stem of the element + -ide + ion”. Ex. F-, Fluoride ion. Polyatomic Ions For POLYATOMIC IONS, it is essentially just the combination of the two aforementioned except it drops the word “ion” from both ions. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Ex. Iron (II) Fluoride (FeF2), from Fe2+ and F-. Notice how the iron just follows the “element name (charge in Roman numeral)” format with the “ion” word removed and the fluorine is just following the “stem of the element + -ide” format that also dropped the “ion” word. For POLYATOMIC ANIONS, greater charge/no. of oxygen : stem name + -ic lower charge/no. of oxygen : stem name + -ous - Ex. NO , Nitrate 3 NO2-, Nitrite MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS ( COVALENT COMPOUNDS) chemical compounds formed when two or more nonmetallic atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Naming: element 1 + stem of element 2 + ide. Ex. HCL - Hydrogen chloride Use Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of each element present. Ex. CO - Carbon monoxide ❖ Mono- may be omitted for the first element. ❖ For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. Greek prefixes used in naming molecular compounds: 1. Mono - 1 6. Hexa - 6 2. Di - 2 7. Hepta - 7 3. Tri - 3 8. Octa - 8 4. Tetra - 4 9. Nona - 9 5. Penta - 5 10. Deca - 10 ❖ Exception: molecular compounds with H are usually called by their common name. Ex. Water (H2O), Ammonia (NH4). ACIDS AND BASES Acid – any hydrogen-containing substance that can donate a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance. ○ Naming: hydro- + name of anion + -ic + acid. Ex. HCL - Hydrochloric Acid. Oxoacids – contain H, O, and another element (the central element) ○ Naming: root name of anion + -ic/-ous + acid. Ex. HNO3 - Nitric acid. ○ -ate → -ic ○ -ite → -ous CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL ❖ To know the right suffix to use, look at the anion used in the acid. If the anion ends in -ate, use -ic; if it ends in -ite, use -ous. Base – a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid ○ Naming: name of first element + hydroxide. Ex. NaOH - sodium hydroxide HYDRATES are compounds that contain water molecules within their crystal structure. ○ Naming: name of the ionic compound + Greek prefix + hydrate. ○ Ex. BaCl2 2H2O, barium chloride dihydrate ❖ The greek prefix applies to the hydrate. ❖ If the cation in the ionic compound has varying charge, use roman numerals to indicate the charge used in the compound. Ex. NiBr2 5H2O, Nickel (II) Bromide Hexahydrate CALCULATING FOR THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA Atomic Mass The mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu) A mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom Average Atomic Mass Mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes Given by the formula: The atomic mass found on periodic tables is not just from a single isotope of an element, but is rather the average mass of all the isotopes of that element weighed by its abundance on Earth. ❖ Ex. Carbon has two isotopes (Carbon-12 and Carbon-13), they each weigh 12.000000 amu and 13.003355 amu respectively. Carbon-12’s percent abundance is 98.90% while Carbon-13 is 1.10%. Using the formula, CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL The average atomic mass of carbon is 12.011 amu (the atomic mass found in periodic tables.) Mole (mol) A unit of measurement to describe a large number of atoms In the same way we refer to 2 as a pair, 12 as a dozen, or 500 as a ream, the mole is used to represent a very large number of atoms easier. It is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the Carbon-12 isotope. There are 6.022 x1023 atoms in 12g of Carbon-12. Therefore, 1 mol of any substance = 6.022 x1023 particles of that substance Avogadro’s Number / Avogadro’s Constant (Na) Named in honor of Amadeo Avogadro Na = 6.0221415 x 1023 1 mol of any substance = 6.022 x1023 particles of that substance The mass of 6.022 x1023 particles of any substance will be equal to that substance’s relative atomic mass in grams. ★ One mole of oranges spread over the entire surface of Earth would produce a layer 14 km into space ★ If you have 1 mole of money, and you count one peso per second – without stopping – it would take you 19 quadrillion years to finish Molar Mass (M) The mass of 1 mole of a substance. Ex. 1 mol C = 12 g C Unit: g/mol. Ex. Carbon: 12 g/mol (There are 12 grams of carbon in every 1 mole of carbon) The molar mass of any substance in grams per mole is numerically equal to the mass of that substance expressed in atomic mass units (amu). CONVERSIONS Atoms and Moles - The conversion factor to use is (6.022 x 1023 particles)/(1 mole) or (1 mole)/(6.022 x 1023 particles) Atom-Moles CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL - 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 23 6.022×10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Moles-Atoms 23 - 6.022×10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Moles and Mass - The conversion factor to use is atomic mass/mol or mol/mass Moles-Mass - 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Mass-Moles - 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 × 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Percentage Composition By Mass The percent by mass of each element in a compound 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 % 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 × 100% Empirical Formula The simplest ratio of the kinds of atoms in the compound Steps: 1. Convert the quantities to grams rather than percentages (Assume the sample weight = 100 g) 2. Convert these quantities into moles 3. Divide the answers by the smallest number of moles. Round your answers to its closest whole number. 4. If results end in decimals, all subscripts need to be multiplied to find the whole-number ratio in the final answer. Decimal Multiplier.25 4.33 3.50 2.66 3.75 4 Ex. A compound is found to be 53% Al and 47% O. Find its empirical formula. Steps: 1. 53% Al = 53 g Al, 47% O = 47 g O CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL 2. 53𝑔 𝐴𝑙 × = 1. 96 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙, 47𝑔 𝑂 × 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 26.98𝑔 𝐴𝑙 16𝑔 𝑂 = 2. 94 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 3. 1.96 mol Al / 1.96 mol Al = 1 mol Al 2.94 mol O / 1.96 mol O = 1.5 mol O 4. 1 mol Al x 2 = 2 mol Al 1.5 mol O x 2 = 3 mol O Therefore, the empirical formula is Al2O3 CALCULATING FOR THE MOLECULAR FORMULA Molecular Formula Shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in a compound Steps: 1. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound from the data given (if needed) 2. Divide the given molecular mass by the empirical formula mass 3. Multiply the quotient (n) to each of the subscripts in the empirical formula Ex. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound whose molar mass is 60.0g and the empirical formula is CH4N. Steps: 1. C = 12.01g, H = 1.01g(4), N = 14.01g Empirical Formula mass = 12.01g + 4.04g + 14.01g = 30.6g 2. 60g/30.6g = 1.96 = 2 3. C = 1(2), H = 4(2), N = 1(2) = C2H8N2 Therefore, C2H8N2 is the molecular formula of CH4N. WRITING BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Chemical Reaction A process in which a substance is changed into one or more new substances CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Chemical Equation Uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction. Writing Chemical Equations: 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2𝑂 , where + means “reacts with” and → means “to yield” Read as “Molecular hydrogen reacts with molecular oxygen to yield water.” or “1 mole of hydrogen (gas) reacts with 1 mole of oxygen (gas) to yield water” Chemists often indicate the physical states of the reactants and products by using letters. - (s) = solid - (g) = gas - (l) = liquid - (aq) = aqueous solution Ex. 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) To conform with the law of conservation of mass, there must be the same number of each type of atom both in the reactant and the product side. 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2𝑂 is not a balanced equation because there is excess oxygen on the reactant side. To balance you must add coefficient “2” to the hydrogen and water, 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2𝑂. Balancing chemical equations is trial and error. STOICHIOMETRY OF REACTIONS Stoichiometry The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reactions Mole Method The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance. Ex. 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔) , the coefficients can be thought of as moles 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2≏ 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Three moles of H2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to two moles of NH3, 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 this can be used as a conversion factor, 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 and vice versa. Reactants are stoichiometrically equivalent to their products and vice versa. LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS/REACTANTS Limiting Reagent - the first reactant to be used up Excess Reagent - the reactant that doesn’t get used up Steps to Finding the Limiting and Excess Reagents: 1. If given is in grams, convert to moles 2. Multiply the reagent (in moles) by its stoichiometric equivalent to the product. 3. The reagent with less yield is the limiting reagent while the excess is the reagent with more yield. THEORETICAL YIELD & PERCENT YIELD Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all of the limiting reagent reacted. Actual Yield - the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction. Percent Yield - describes the proportion of the actual yield to the theoretical yield. 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 % 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 × 100 Steps to Find Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield 1. To find the theoretical yield, use conversion factors to convert your given into what was asked. Ex. If 40g KClO3 was heated until it decomposes, what is the theoretical yield of O2? The chemical formula is 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g). To find O2, convert 40g KClO3 into moles then multiply by its stoichiometric equivalent to 3O2 (which is 3 moles of O2 per 2 moles KClO3). If done right the answer should be 15.7 g O2. 2. The actual yield is usually already given, so once you find the theoretical yield just substitute your actual yield and theoretical yield in the above equation to get the percent yield. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL 3. In problems where both reagents have a given value, the way to find the theoretical yield is to solve for the limiting reagent. The value of the yield from the limiting reagent is the theoretical yield. After that, convert your yield into grams before solving for percent yield. GAS LAWS (NOT PART OF THE COVERAGE FOR QUARTER 1) Pressure - the force exerted per unit area, P = F/A where F = Force, A = area Barometer - common instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. Units of Pressure: SI Unit - 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Other Units: 1 psi =6894.76 Pa, 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1kPa = 760 mmHg, 1 torr = 1mmHg Boyle’s Law - P1V1 = P2V2 , Inversely Proportional Charles Law - , Directly Proportional 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 Gay-Lussac’s Law - , Directly Proportional 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 Avogadro’s Law - , Directly Proportional 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 ❖ Unit for temperature in gas law problems is always in Kelvin (K) ❖ Unit for pressure and volume depends on what the problem asks, but in case there is nothing said about the unit that needs to be used, just use the units given. (ex. If the given is in mmHg and it wasn’t specified what the final answer’s units should be, use mmHg.) CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL PHYSICS Legend: Related to the topic ★ Kind of off topic but was mentioned so it might come up ❖ To remember FORMULA SHEET PM - Projectile Motion, CM - Circular Motion Asked Formula Symbols Percent Error 𝑥−𝑠 x → Observed Value % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = || 𝑠 || × 100% s → Standard Value Uncertainty for 𝐿𝐶 LC → Lowest Count µ = Single 2 Measurements Uncertainty for σ𝑠 N → Number of trials Multiple δ = σ𝑠 → Standard 𝑁 Measurements Deviation Standard Deviation X̄ → Mean of Data 2 σ𝑠 = 𝑛 ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑖 Set 𝑥𝑖 → ith Value 𝑁 (𝑁−1) 𝑖=1 X-Component A → Magnitude of 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ (Vector) Vector Y-Component 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛θ (Vector) Magnitude of 2 2 Vector/ Resultant A= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 Vector Direction of −1| 𝐴 | Vector/Resultant θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 | 𝐴𝑦 | | 𝑥| Vector CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Displacement 𝑥𝑓 → Final position ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 →Initial position Average Speed 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Average Velocity ∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓−𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑥 → Change in 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖 position ∆𝑡 → Change in time Acceleration ∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑖 𝑎= ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖 Kinematic Equations 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 1 2 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 2 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑑 𝑑 = ( )𝑡𝑣𝑖+𝑣𝑓 2 Range (PM) 2 𝑣𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2θ g – Acceleration 𝑅 = 𝑔 Due to Gravity Max Height (PM) (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ)2 h_i → Initial Height 𝐻 = ℎ𝑖 + 2𝑔 Time of Flight (PM) 2𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑡 = 𝑔 Velocity (PM) 𝑣𝑥 – Horizontal Velo 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑣𝑦 – Vertical Velo 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Displacement (PM) x → Horizontal 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠θ · 𝑡 Displacement 1 2 𝑦 = ℎ𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 y → Vertical 2 Displacement Period (CM) 2π𝑟 r – Radius 𝑇 = 𝑣 Frequency (CM) 1 𝑣 T → Period 𝑓 = 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 2π𝑟 Centripetal 2 𝑣 Acceleration (CM) 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟 Centripetal Force 𝑣 2 (CM) 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚 · 𝑟 Angular Velocity 2π 𝑣 T → Period ω = 𝑜𝑟 (CM) 𝑇 𝑟 Work F → Force 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠θ d → Displacement Power 𝑊 W → Work 𝑃 = 𝑡 t → Time Kinetic Energy 1 2 m → Mass 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 Gravitational h → Height 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ Potential Energy Elastic Potential 1 2 k → Spring constant Energy 𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥 CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL UNITS, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, AND UNIT CONVERSION Physical Quantities Are numbers used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively. Nature of Physical Quantities: ○ Fundamental Quantities - quantities that exist by themselves. Ex. Mass, Time, Length, Temperature. ○ Derived Quantities - quantities that depend on other quantities. Ex. Speed, Speed = distance/time which are fundamental quantities. Speed is derived from the ratio between distance and time. Others: Acceleration, Force, Area, Volume, Work. Types of Physical Quantities: ○ Scalar - quantities with only magnitude. Ex. mass, speed, distance, energy. ○ Vector - quantities with both magnitude and direction. Ex. velocity, acceleration, force. System of Units SI (Système Internationale) - the universal system used by the scientific community. ○ The seven fundamental quantities and SI Units Symbol/Abbreviation SI Unit Quantity s time second m length meter kg mass kilogram A electric current ampere K temperature kelvin mol amount of molecules mole cd Luminous intensity candela Unit Conversion When units are not consistent, converting to appropriate ones is needed. In unit conversion, units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL each other out. Types of Unit Conversion 1. Straightforward Linear Conversion Ex. 1 mi = 1609 m 2. Chain Conversion Ex. 15 mi/h = ___ m/s 15 𝑚𝑖 1609𝑚 1ℎ 1𝑚 ℎ × 1 𝑚𝑖 × 60 𝑚 × 60 𝑠 = 6. 70 𝑚/𝑠 3. Power Conversion 100 m2 = ____ cm2 100𝑐𝑚 2 ( ) = 1, 000, 000 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑟 1 × 10 2 100 𝑚 × 2 ( 1𝑚 ) = 100 𝑚 × 2 10000𝑐𝑚 1𝑚 2 2 6 Physics and Measurement Measurement is important to physics because it is needed to formulate new concepts, theories or laws, and verify the existing ones. Measurement A process of comparing an unknown quantity to a standard quantity of the same physical dimension. It is a process of assigning numbers and the appropriate unit to a physical quantity. Precision - the degree of fineness of the measurement taking into account the ability of an instrument to measure small quantities. Instruments that can measure smaller/finer quantities are said to be more precise. Measurements that are closer to each other in values are also said to be more precise. Accuracy - the degree of agreement of a measured value to the standard value. The closer the measured value is to the standard value, the more accurate the measurement is. ○ Percent error - indicates the nearness of the measured value to the standard value, hence it can be considered as a gauge of the accuracy of a measurement. 𝑥−𝑠 % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = || 𝑠 || × 100% CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Errors Does not imply mistake or blunder. The deviation of a measured value to the true value. Systematic - the measured value tends to be either larger or smaller than the true value caused by imperfect calibration of an instrument or varied response of an instrument to different environmental conditions. ○ Ex. A broken metallic ruler tends to expand in higher temperatures and shrink in lower temperatures causing inaccuracy of measurements, making it a systematic error. Random - due to limitations of the measuring device used or the uncertainties in the reading and are usually unavoidable because uncertainty is in every physical measurement. ○ Ex. The centimeter scale in a ruler can only measure up to 0.1cm, measuring values smaller than that will be difficult, making it a random error. It is unlike measuring tools like vernier calipers that have smaller increments (up to 0.1mm) than a regular ruler. But measuring values smaller than 0.1mm will also be difficult on a vernier caliper, making it still have uncertainty in its readings, proving that uncertainty is in every physical measurement just that some tools are better fit for a certain job than others. Uncertainty The doubt that exists for every measurement. No matter how careful the measurement, uncertainty will still exist. In physics, uncertainties are expressed by reporting measurements in intervals. Best Value Form: (2.2±0.2)cm, where 2.2 is the best value and 0.2 is the uncertainty meaning the value can be from 2.0 to 2.4 cm. Uncertainty for single measurement - can be measured using µ = , where LC 𝐿𝐶 2 is the least count of an instrument. σ𝑠 Uncertainty for multiple measurements - calculated using δ = , where N is the 𝑁 number of trials, σ𝑠 is the standard deviation. 2 ○ σ𝑠 = ∑ 𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) 𝑖 , where x̄ is the mean of the set of data/measured 𝑁 (𝑁−1) 𝑖=1 values and 𝑥𝑖 is the ith measured value. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL ○ For multiple measurements, the best value is in the form of x̄±δ VECTORS AND COMPONENTS OF VECTORS Vectors are mathematical objects used to represent quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Properties of a vector: 1. Magnitude: The length or the size of the vector. 2. Direction: The orientation of the vector in space. Magnitude and Direction If we are representing vectors in the following format: |A|, ||A||, it means that we are getting the magnitude of the vector or only the magnitude is needed. Graphical Presentation CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL In the regular coordinate system, x-axis and y-axis are used. In the geographic coordinate system, north (N), south (S), east (E), west (W) are used. ○ At 45° the direction of the vector can either be NE, SE, NW, SW, depending on the quadrant. But, if measured from the closest horizontal direction it can either be N of E, N of W, S of W, or S of E.. ○ If it is less or more than 45°, the direction of the vector will be dependent on where the vector is rotating towards. Ex. 60° E of S means that from south the vector moved 60° to the east. Vector Components A vector can be split into its x-component and y-component. x-component is the component parallel to the x-axis given by the formula 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ y-component is the component parallel to the y-axis given by the formula 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛θ To find the magnitude of a vector using only its components, use pythagorean theorem where c2 = a2 + b2, let a = Ax, b = Ay, and c = A. 2 2 ○ So, A = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 −1| 𝐴 | To find the direction of a vector, use θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 | 𝐴𝑦 | | 𝑥| Addition of Vectors Vector Addition Vectors can be added and the sum is called the resultant vector. There are many ways to calculate for the resultant vector. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Component Addition Vector addition using the component method is a systematic way to add vectors by breaking them down into their horizontal and vertical components. In this method: 1. Break down the given vectors into their x and y components. 2. Get the sum of all the x-components (Rx) and all the y-components (Ry). 2 2 3. Find the Resultant magnitude by using R = 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦 −1| 𝑅 | 4. Find the Resultant vector’s direction using θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 | 𝑅𝑦 | | 𝑥| KINEMATICS Origin Classical Mechanics ○ Systematic theory developed by Isaac Newton ○ Answer the questions “What is motion?” and “What causes motion?” Kinematics ○ Branch of classical mechanics that deals with the study of motion regardless of what caused the motion. ○ Does not look into the reasons why an object is moving, just describes how an object is moving. Important Quantities Position ○ Location of the particle from a reference point ○ In a coordinate system, the reference point is the origin ○ Usually denoted as x, where xi - initial position and xf - final position ○ Vector quantity. Distance ○ scalar quantity ○ Total path length traveled by a particle moving from one location to another. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Displacement ○ vector quantity ○ Straight path length between initial and final position of a particle ○ It is the change in x. ○ Formula: ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 Time ○ measure of duration of events Average speed ○ Scalar quantity ○ The ratio of total distance traveled and total amount of time needed to travel that distance 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ○ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Average velocity ○ Vector quantity ○ The ratio of total displacement and total amount of time during which the displacement occurred ∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓−𝑥𝑖 ○ 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖 Instantaneous Velocity ○ Vector quantity ○ How fast an object is moving at any single point along its path ○ The velocity of an object at a given distance and moment in time. Acceleration ○ Vector Quantity ○ Amount of change in velocity per unit time ∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑖 ○ 𝑎= ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓− 𝑡𝑖 CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Graphical Analysis of Motion General Linear Relationship: 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 × 𝑡 + 𝑥0 In a Velocity vs Time Graph, the area under the v vs t graph is equal to the value of the position. It is one way to write x vs t graph when given a v vs t graph Distance vs Time Graphs and Velocity vs Time Graphs If motion is uniform, the velocity is constant If object is at rest, there is no velocity Velocity vs Time Graph and Acceleration vs Time Graph If velocity is constant, there is no acceleration as there is no change in velocity CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Kinematic Equations a set of four equations that can be utilized to predict unknown information about an object's motion if other information is known. Equation vf Vi d a t 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 / / x / / 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑡 2 x / / / / 2 2 2 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑑 / / / / x 𝑑 = ( )𝑡𝑣𝑖+𝑣𝑓 2 / / / x / RELATIVE MOTION Relative Velocity Velocity is not absolute; it depends on the state of the observer’s motion Every motion is described as relative to a reference frame The laws of physics are the same for all inertial frames of reference Inertial Frames of Reference - frames of reference moving at constant velocity or at rest. Ex. Earth since it is rotating at a constant rate making its surface an IFR. 𝑉𝑃𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃𝑀 + 𝑉𝑀𝑆 , where P = Particle or the Object in Focus, S = Stationary Ref. Frame , M = Moving Ref. Frame PROJECTILE MOTION Elements of a Projectile: Trajectory - a path an object follows as it moves through space Range - the horizontal distance the projectile travels from time it launched to the time it comes back down the same height at which it was launched Max. Height - the highest vertical position along its trajectory Time of Flight - the duration of flight of a projectile Velocity - rate of change of position of the projectile, can be broken down to its (x and y) components Displacement - change in position of a projectile at any given time CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Formulas: 2 𝑣𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2θ Range: 𝑅 = 𝑔 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ)2 Max. Height: 𝐻 = ℎ𝑖 + 2𝑔 2𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ Time of Flight: 𝑡 = 𝑔 Velocity: ○ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠θ for horizontal velocity ○ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ for vertical velocity Displacement: ○ 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠θ · 𝑡 for horizontal displacement 2 𝑔𝑡 for vertical displacement 1 ○ 𝑦 = ℎ𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑡 − 2 CIRCULAR MOTION Uniform Circular Motion (UCM) A type of motion where an object follows a circular path or orbit with constant speed. Parameters: ○ Radius (r) - the distance from the center of the circle to the object. Unit is in m (meters). ○ Velocity/Tangential Speed (v) - the speed of the object along the circular path. The direction of the velocity is always tangent to its path. Unit is in m/s (meters per second). ○ Period (T) - the time it takes to complete one full revolution around the circle. Unit is in s (seconds). ○ Frequency (f) - the number of revolutions per unit of time. Unit is in Hz (Hertz). ○ Centripetal Acceleration (ac) - for an object to move in a circle, it must constantly change direction, which requires acceleration. Unit is in m/s2 (meters per second squared). ○ Centripetal Force (Fc) - to maintain circular motion, a force must act on the object toward the center of a circle. Unit is in N (Newtons). ○ Angular Velocity (ω) - is a measure of how quickly an object is rotating or revolving around a central point. Unit is in rad/s (radians per second). CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Formulas Period: 𝑇 = 2π𝑟 ○ 𝑣 Frequency: 𝑓 = 1 𝑣 ○ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 2π𝑟 2 Centripetal Acceleration: 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣 ○ 𝑟 2 Centripetal Force: 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚 · 𝑣 ○ 𝑟 Angular Velocity: ω = 2π 𝑣 ○ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 FREE-BODY DIAGRAM Free-Body Diagram It is a method used to identify all the types of forces acting on an object including the direction of the forces. Common Forces Present on the system: ○ Normal (FN) - perpendicular force exerted by a surface due to Newton’s third law of motion (law of interaction: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction). ○ Gravitational Force (Fg) - The force of gravity acting downward. ○ Applied Force (Fa) - External force exerted on the system. ○ Frictional Force (Ff) - Resistance force opposite the direction of motion. ○ Tensional Force (FT) - Force transmitted through a string, rope, or cable being pulled. ○ Net Force (Fnet) - Total amount of force being experienced by a system. WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY Work The amount of energy transferred by a force. It is the product of Force and displacement. 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠θ , where F = Force, d = displacement, θ = angle between F and d. The force exerted must be in the same direction as its displacement. Else, there is no work done. Ex. A man carrying a boulder going east does not have any work done because his force applied is perpendicular to that of its displacement. 2 The unit for work is in J (Joules) or 𝑁 · 𝑚 or 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2 𝑠 CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Power The rate of doing work The higher the power, the more work it can do per unit of time. 𝑊 𝑃 = 𝑡 2 Unit is in W (Watts) or J/s (Joules per second) or 𝑁 · or 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚 𝑠 3 𝑠 Mechanical Energy The energy of macroscopic particles due to their velocity or position Types: 1. Kinetic Energy a. Energy associated with moving objects. b. S.I Unit: Joules, J c. Symbol: KE 2 d. 𝐾𝐸 = 1 2 𝑚𝑣 ❖ Work is done only when there is a change in an object’s kinetic energy. ❖ 𝑊 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = ∆𝐾𝐸 or the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem 2. Potential Energy a. Energy stored in an object when its relative vertical position is changed due to work. b. The term “potential” is used because the stored energy has the potential to do work when released. c. Types of Potential Energy i. Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) the energy stored in an object when its height from a reference point is changed due to work. Formula: 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ , m = mass; g = acceleration due to gravity; h = height or vertical displacement Unit: J (Joules) ii. Elastic Potential Energy (EPE) the energy stored in an Hookean spring when it was compressed or stretched due to work. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL 2 Formula: 𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 , k = spring constant, x = 1 2 displacement from equilibrium ❖ The equilibrium is a location where the EPE is zero. It is the point in a spring where the compressed/stretched spring will return to when the EPE is released. Unit: J (Joules) CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL PHILOSOPHY Introduction to Philosophy Definition of Philosophy - Comes from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom), or Love of Wisdom - Involves studying the fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, values, existence, etc. - Human Reasoning is the primary tool used to investigate Philosophy Most Notable Ancient Greek Philosophers - Pythagoras - Best known for the Pythagorean Theorem - “All is number”. He believed in the certainty of numbers when it came to understanding our universe. - Believed in the transmigration of souls (reincarnation). - Heraclitus - Famous for his doctrine of change: “You cannot step into the same river twice”. - Everything is in a state of flux (constant change). - Fire is the fundamental substance of the universe, representing change. - Democritus - Known for his theory of Atomism, the idea that the universe is composed of indivisible atoms. - Was groundbreaking at the time. - Diogenes of Sinope - Cynic Philosopher. - "I am a citizen of the world" - Lived in a barrel and sought a life of virtue in order to be one with nature. - Epicurus - "The art of living well and the art of dying well are one." - Founded Epicureanism - Believed that the purpose of life is to attain pleasure and avoid pain, advocating for simple and intellectual pleasures over physical ones. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL - Socrates - "The unexamined life is not worth living." - Most famous of all philosophers - known for his method (The Socratic Method) of questioning and answering to gain knowledge. - Focused on ethics and human behavior rather than the natural world. - Plato - "The measure of a man is what he does with power." - Student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle - Founded the Academy of Athens, one of the earliest institutions for higher learning. - Famous for his Theory of Forms, which states that the world is a shadow of a higher reality - Aristotle - "Man is by nature a political animal.” - He wrote on a wide range of subjects, from biology to ethics to politics. reasoning CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL The Need to Philosophize - Philosophizing - A pursuit of wisdom and understanding, not done just for answers but for the journey itself. - According to Plato - Wonder as the starting point of philosophizing - Illustrated through the Allegory of the Cave, found in Plato’s book The Republic - Shadows - The prisoners take the shadows to be reality - Escape - What would happen if one tries to seek the truth - Return - The enlightened prisoner returns to free the others, but is ostracized - According to Descartes - Doubt as the foundation of inquiry - "Cogito, ergo sum" - We can doubt everything but we cannot doubt the existence of ourselves as thinking beings - According to Karl Jaspers - Views philosophizing as a deeply existential act that engages the whole person with the world - Introduced “Limit Situation”, where we confront the limits of our existence, primarily death. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Characterizing the Study of Philosophy Framework Analysis: - Framework - Structured set of ideas that prove basis for further reasoning - Internal Questions - Addressed within a framework. - External Questions - Challenge the framework's validity. Examination of a Particular Area of Knowledge - Specialized Areas - Philosophy can zoom on specific subjects - Different Methods and Questions - Each area has its own way of asking and answering questions A Discipline - Aesthetics - Beauty, art, and taste - Logic - Study of valid reasoning and argumentation - Epistemology - Study of knowledge, belief, and truth - Ethics - Study of moral right and wrong - Political Philosophy - Study of justice, government, and rights of citizens - Metaphysics - Study of nature of reality - Relation of mind and body - Events and causation - Philosophy of a Human Person - Study of human nature, identity, and questions on human existence CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Reflection Philosophical Reflection - Examine existential and practical issues to uncover meaning behind experiences. Types of Reflection - Primary Reflection: - Analytic and objective. - Breaks down experiences into parts. - Foundation of scientific inquiry - Focuses on external problems - Is objective - Secondary Reflection: - Synthetic and unifying. - Connects object and subject, emphasizing unity. - Interprets parts in relation to the whole, addressing mysteries rather than just problems. - CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Holistic and Partial Thinking Holistic Thinking - Considers the whole - Looks at the big picture - Philosophy uses holistic thinking Partial Thinking - Focuses on specific aspects of a situations CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Distinguishing Truth and Opinion John Corvino’s Three Distinctions of Opinion and Truth - Belief and Reality Distinction - Reality is unarguably see and felt by human senses - Belief stems from reality - Subjective and Objective Distinction - Perspective could turn facts into opinions and vice versa - Something appears subjective when you rely on your perception dictated by your mind - It appears objective when there are reasons outside of your mind that makes things true - Descriptive and Normative Distinction - Descriptive statements narrates what happens, what is true - Normative statements prescribe what people should do Fact vs Opinion Table CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL - CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Methods of Philosophizing Logic - Study of correct thinking - Focuses on analysis of arguments (Series of statements called premises that provide reasons for a conclusion) - Inductive Reasoning - Specific thought to general idea - The sun rose in the east today (Observation) The sun rose in the east yester (Observation) The sun always rises in the east (Conclusion) - Deductive Reasoning - General idea to a specific thought - All dogs are mammals (1st Premise) Buddy is a dog (2nd Premise) Buddy is a mammal (3rd Premise) Analytic Tradition - Focuses on language and logical structures in order to avoid misunderstandings - Modus Ponens - If P, then Q. - P is true; - Therefore Q is true - Modus Tollens - If P, then Q. - Not Q; - Therefore not P - Disjunctive syllogism - P or Q. - Not P; - Therefore Q. - Hypothetical Syllogism - If P, then Q. - If Q, then R. - Therefore, if P, then R. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL - Biconditional - P if and only if Q. - Conjunction - P and Q. Phenomenology - Reality is shaped by human consciousness and lived experiences - Man’s subjective perceptions and lived experiences are the most relevant reality - Describes and analyzes structures of experiences Existentialism - Truth is a by-product of rational choice based on one’s attitude and outlook - Believes in the subjectivity of truth, and that man has the freedom to decide reality - Focuses on human existence and the meaning of life - Focuses on death, freedom, and the absurd Postmodernism - Thinking is relative - Truth is subjective - There is no single attribute to the real world CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Fallacies and Biases Fallacies - Arguments based on faulty reasoning - Made to persuade/convince - Ad hominem - Attacking the person and not the arguments - Appeal to Force - Using the threat of force - Appeal to Emotion - Exploiting emotions such as pity or sympathy - Appeal to Popular - Bandwagon fallacy - An idea is acceptable because a lot of people accept it - Appeal to Tradition - Idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time - Begging the Question - Circular argument - Assuming an idea to be true - Uses its own premise as the conclusion - Cause-and-Effect - Assuming two unrelated events are causally related - Fallacy of Composition - Assuming what is true for a part of true for the whole - Fallacy of Division - Assuming what is true for the whole is true for each part Biases - Tendencies and influences of a person’s personal view - Not necessarily an error in reasoning - Correspondence Bias/Attribution Effect - Judging a person’s personality by his/her actions, not taking into account external factors - Confirmation Bias - Overlook information which contradicts what you believe to be true - Framing CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL - Focusing on certain aspects while ignoring others - Hindsight - Tendency to see past events as predictable - Judging what has already happened with current information - Conflict of Interest - An entity has a vested interest in the issue at hand - Cultural Bias - Analyzing an event/issue based on one’s cultural standards CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Limitations and Transcendence - Human existence is an embodied existence Consciousness - State or quality of awareness of oneself Embodiment - Refers to the biological and physical presence of our bodies Limitations of the Human Person as an Embodied Spirit - Facticity - Some things in our lives are already given and cannot be changed, like our past or what family we’re born into - Spatial-Temporal Being - Finitude being our limitation - Cannot be in two/more places at the same time - We are limited by space and time - Body as Intermediary - Intermediary meaning mediator - Our body serves as an intermediary between us and the world - Our body’s limits limit our experience with world - Imposes limitations involving communication and expression Transcendence - Ability to change and redefine oneself despite our limitations CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Environmental Philosophy The Environment in Philosophy - As the apex species, we are morally obligated to take place of the environment - We are part of the environment, we are affected by it, so we must take care of it Malthusian Theory of Population - Human consumption grows exponentially - Resource production grows linearly - Consumption will outpace production, leading to scarcity Three Major Views Anthropocentrism - Humans are the most important species on the planet - Considers nature as a source of resources. Free to be used and transformed for better or worse Biocentrism - All life has inherent value and should be protected - Advocates for ethical treatment of animals Ecocentrism - Places value on ecosystems (living and nonliving) and biological communities than just singular species - Humans is a part of a greater whole biological system as stewards or guardians - Promotes order and balance to bring stability and beauty Environmental Aesthetics - Maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings Environmental Ethics - Moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and the environment. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Sustainable Development - Maintain environment for the long-run while still developing as a society Principles of Sustainability - Environmental Integrity - Maintaining the state of the environment - Economic Efficiency - Prudent decision-making ensuring minim waste - Equity - Resources will be conserved for the next generation CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL FSPL AKADEMIKONG PAGSULAT ARALIN 1: Layunin sa Paglinang ng Kasanayan sa Akademikong Pagsulat Kasanayan sa Pagsulat Bukod sa pagsulat, ito ang mga makrong kasanayang dapat taglayin ng isang mag aaral: pakikinig, pagsasalita, pagbabasa, at Panonood Katangian ng Proseso sa Pagsulat Ayon kina Villanueva at Bandril (2007), ang pagsulat ay isa sa pangunahing kasanayan na natutuhan at pinauunlad sa loob ng paaralan. Ang manunulat ay kailangang: mahusay mangalap ng impormasyon; mahusay magsuri; magaling mag-organisa ng mga ideya; at Lohikal Katangian ng Proseso sa Pagsulat Komprehensibong Paksa Angkop na Layunin Gabay sa Balangkas Halaga ng Datos Epektibong Pagsusuri Tugon ng Kongklusyon Yugto sa Pagbuo ng Akademikong Pagsulat Bago sumulat: Sa yugto ng ito naganap ang integrasyon ng paunang kaalaman at bagong kaalaman. Higit na yumayaman ang dating kaalaman at karanasan mula sa pagbabasa, panonood, at pakikinig. Pagbuo ng Unang Borador: Sa yugto ng ito, matiyagang in iisa-isa ng manunulat ang mga konsepto na maaaring maging laman ng akademikong sulatin. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Pagwawasto (Editing) at Pagrerebisa: Sa yugto ng ito, inaayos ang unang burador. Iniwawasto ang mga mali tulad ng baybay, bantas, at mismong nilalaman ng akademikong sulatin. Huli o Pinal na Sulatin: Mababakas sa yugtong ito ang inaasahang kahusayan at kakinisan ng binubuong akademikong sulatin. Pulidong isinulat at handang ibahagi at mabasa ng iba upang ipabatid ang layunin ng pagsulat ng akademikong sulatin. Paglalathala o Pagpapalimbag: Sa yugtong ito maibabahagi sa mas maraming mambabasa ang impormasyong nais ipabatid bilang ambag sa produksyon ng karunungan. Nailathala ang akademikong sulatin dahil sa taglay nitong katangiang katangian ng akademikong sulatin. Dahilan at Layunin sa Pagsulat Kakayahan sa Kritikal na Pag-iisip: Sa pagsasakatuparan ng akademikong sulatin, hindi natatapos ang manunulat sa hayag na paglalahad lamang ng mga kaalaman. Pagpapalawak at Pagpapalalim ng Kaalaman: Sa iba't ibang yugto at antas ng pag-aaral, nagagawa ng matutunan ng isang indibidwal ang iba't ibang konsepto at/o mga teoryang kinakailangan sa isang larangan. Kakayahang Propesyonal: Sa pagsulat ng mga akademikong sulatin, bukod sa konseptong teknikal at kasanayang nakukuha rito, nagagawa rin ng isang indibidwal na maunawaan at matutunan ang propesyonalidad. Kasanayan sa Saliksik: Isang mahalagang katangian sa pagtupad ng akademikong sulatin ay ang taglay nitong kaalaman na hindi lamang sumandig sa isang batis o batayan, sapagkat nangangailangan itong makapagbigay ng isang kongkreto at makabuluhang kahulugan at/o kaalaman. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL MALIKHAING PAGSULAT ARALIN 1: Kahulugan at Katangian ng Malikhaing Pagsulat Ayon kina Castillo et al. (2008), ang malikhaing pagsulat ay isang natatanging uri ng pagsulat sapagkat kailangan nitong magtaglay ng mahusay na diwa at paksa. Malikhaing Pagsulat Nangangailangan din ito ng kakayahang mag-isip, magdanas, magmasid, at matuto. Bukod sa pangangailangang maunawaan,ang pinakasimpleng kahingian sa pagsusulat upang maituring itong malikhain ay ang pagiging mapagparanas at makintal. Para naman kina Castro et al. (2008), angmalikhaing pagsulat ay gumagamit ng mayamang imahinasyon ng isang manunulat. Katangian ng Malikhaing Pagsulat Malikhaing Pagpapahayag Aestetikong Anyo Pandaigdigang Kaisipan Kawalang-maliw IDYOMA Ang mga idyoma ay tinatawag ding idyomatikong pahayag o sawikain sa ating wika na ginagamit sa ibang mga aklat. Ito ay madalas na matatagpuan sa mga malikhaing sulatin. ARALIN 2: Layunin sa Paglinang ng Kasanayan sa Malikhaing Pagsulat Itinuturing na akto ng "pagbubuo ng imahe o hugis na kakaiba sa karaniwan" ni Castillo et al., (2008) ang malikhaing pagsulat. MGA URI NG MALIKHAING PAGSULAT Di-kathang isip Kathang isip Panulaan CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Di-Kathang-isip - Nagtataglay ito ng paksang ibinunga ng malalim na pananaliksik, kontekstuwalisasyon ng tagpuan at danas, at masining na paggamit ng wika sa pagsasalaysay. Talambuhay Ito ay salaysay ng naging buhay ng isang tao mula sa kanyang pagkabata at pinagmulan hanggang sa kinahinatnan ng kanyang buhay pagtanda. Personal na Naratibo Ito ay salaysay ng mga personal na pangyayari sa buhay ng mismong may-akda. Kathang-isip - Ito ang paglalahad ng salaysay na balot ng kawalang-katotohanan at inimbento lamang ng may-akda sang-ayon sa pangangailangan niyang makabuo ng isang ganap na kuwento. Nobela Naturingan ding "kathambuhay,” naglalahad at nagtatalakay ito ng madudulang pangyayari sa buhay ng pangunahing tauhang nakikipagsapalaran at sentro ng tunggalian. Nobelita Taglay nito ang parehong mga elementong bumubuo sa isang nobela, bagama't di-hamak na mas maikli ito at mas mahaba naman sa maikling kuwento. Maikling Kuwento Maikli lamang ang salaysay ng kwento pero buong inilarawan ang mahahalagang pangyayari sa buhay ng pangunahing tauhan, at nag-iiwan ng kakintalan sa diwa ng mambabasa. Dagli Nasusulat lamang sa isa hanggang dalawang pahina, isang kawili-wiling katangian nito ang biglang pihit ng sitwasyong nakapagpabago sa kahihinatnan ng kwento. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Pabula Isa sa pinakamatandang uri ng malikhaing panitikan sa kabuuan, namumukod na katangian ng pabula ang paggamit ng mga hayop bilang mga tauhan ng kwento. Dula May tiyak at sarili itong estrukturang sinusunod, at maaaring mahati pa sa ilang yugto ang mga pangyayari batay sa kahingian ng kuwento at estilo ng may-akda sa pagsulat. Panulaan o Tula - Nagtatampok ito ng malayang paggamit sa wika ayon sa estilo at anyong nais ng manunulat. Mayaman ito sa mga tayutay, may pattern sa paglalapat ng mga katagang karaniwang may tugma at bilang ng pantig, at nasa estrukturang binubuo ng saknong at mga taludtod. Maikli Binubuo lamang ito ng isang saknong na may tatlo hanggang limang taludtod. Liriko o Pandamdamin Tampok dito ang ugnayan ng tulang liriko at ang musikang sinasaliwan ng instrumentong lira, kaya naman nakilala ito bilang tulang kakantahin o tulang may katangiang awit. Pasalaysay Nagtataglay ito ng balangkas, maikli man ito o mahaba. Naglalahad ito ng mga tagpo o pangyayaring maaaring simple lamang o masalimuot, payak o madrama. Dula Isa itong uri ng tulang may layong isadula o itanghal sa entabladong sasaksihan ng mga tagapanood. Patnigan Itinatanghal ito ng magkatunggaling makata, na nagpapaligsahan ng katwiran at nagtatagisan ng talas sa pagtalos ng paksa. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL ABSTRAK ARALIN 1: Kahulugan, Layunin, at Gamit ng Abstrak ABSTRAK - Ang abstrak ay maikling lagom ng isang pananaliksik, tesis, rebyu, daloy ng kumperensiya, o anumang may lalim na pagsusuri ng isang paksa o disiplina (Villanueva at Bandril, 2016). - Ang salitang abstrak ay mula sa salitang Latin na “abstrahere” na ang ibig sabihin ay to draw away, pull something away, or extract from. - Ayon kay Philip Koopman (1997), bagama’t ang abstrak ay maikli lamang, tinataglay nito ang mahalagang elemento o bahagi ng sulating akademiko tulad ng introduksiyon, mga kaugnay na literatura, metodolohiya, resulta, at kongklusyon. KATANGIAN NG ABSTRAK Ang haba ng abstrak ay nagbabago ayon sa disiplina at kahingian ng palimbagan. 100 hanggang 500 salita, higit lamang sa isang pahina Gumagamit ng wikang nauunawaan ng lahat bilang pagtugon sa lawak ng target na mambabasa. Naglalaman ito ng apat na mahahalagang elemento sa natapos na gawain: tuon ng pananaliksik; metodolohiya ng pananaliksik na ginamit; resulta o kinalabasan ng pananaliksik; at pangunahing konklusyon at mga rekomendasyon. DALAWANG URI NG ABSTRAK Nirestrukturang Abstrak - Ito ang abstrak na madalas na lohikal ang pagkakaayos at may kaugnay na paksa na: kaligiran, introduksiyon, layunin, metodolohiya, resulta, at kongklusyon. Di-nirestrukturang Abstrak - Ito ang mga abstrak naman na binubuo ng isang talata na di gumagamit ng mga kaugnay na paksa. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL LAYUNIN AT GAMIT NG ABSTRAK Ang akademikong literatura ay gumagamit ng abstrak sa halip na kabuuan ng komplikadong pananaliksik (Villanueva & Bandril, 2016). Pamimili Kakayahang Magsuri Indexing Pangangailangang Akademiko Publikasyon ARALIN 2: Pagsulat ng Abstrak Mga Uri ng Abstrak Ang proseso ng pagsulat ay binubuo ng iba't ibang yugto na nagtutulungan upang makabuo ng isang mahusay na sulatin. Ang mga yugtong ito ay: Prewriting: Ito ang unang yugto kung saan nag-iisip at nagpaplano ang manunulat. Dito, tinutukoy ang paksa, layunin, at target na mambabasa. Maaaring gumamit ng iba't ibang pamamaraan tulad ng brainstorming, libreng pagsulat, o paggawa ng balangkas. Drafting: Sa yugtong ito, isinusulat ng manunulat ang unang bersyon ng kanilang sulatin. Hindi kailangang perpekto ang draft na ito, ang mahalaga ay mailabas ang mga ideya at maiayos ang mga ito sa isang lohikal na pagkakasunod-sunod. Revising: Pagkatapos ng drafting, sinusuri ng manunulat ang kanilang sulatin upang makita kung may mga kailangang baguhin o idagdag. Dito, tinitignan ang nilalaman, organisasyon, at estilo ng sulatin. Editing: Sa yugtong ito, tinitignan ng manunulat ang mga teknikal na aspeto ng kanilang sulatin tulad ng gramatika, bantas, spelling, at mekaniks. Final Document: Ang huling yugto ay ang paggawa ng final na bersyon ng sulatin. Dito, pinagsasama-sama ang lahat ng mga pagbabago at pagwawasto na ginawa sa mga nakaraang yugto. Katangian ng Abstrak Nagpapakita ng kapayakan ng isang pag-aaral upang madaling maintindihan. Obhetibo at ginagamit ito sa pananaliksik. Nagbibigay ng mga tiyak na ideya sa inaral. Naglalarawan ng nilalaman sa pamamagitan ng mga pangunahing ideya. May kaisahan at kaugnayan ang bawat bahagi ng isinulat. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL Mga Uri ng Abstrak Deskriptib o Deskriptibong Abstrak Ito ay paglalarawan ng mga pangunahing ideya sa mga mambabasa. Nakapaloob sa deskriptibong abstrak ang kaligiran, paksa ng papel, at layunin nito. Impormatib o Impormatibong Abstrak Ito ay nakapokus upang mailahad ang mahahalagang ideya o datos mula sa kabuuang pag-aaral. Nakapaloob dito ang paksa, layunin, kaligiran, metodolohiya, kinalabasan ng pag-aaral, at kongklusyon. Ito ay nakapokus upang mailahad ang mahahalagang ideya o datos mula sa kabuuang pag-aaral. Nakapaloob dito ang paksa, ARAILIN 3: Mga Hakbang Sa Pagsulat ng Abstrak 1. Isulat muna ang papel-pananaliksik. 2. Isaayos ang pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga bahagi ng abstrak na tulad ng sa papel pananaliksik. 3. Bumuo ng borador ng abstrak. 4. Ipabasa sa kakilala ang abstrak na isinulat. 5. Rebisahin ang isinulat na abstrak. Nilalaman ng Abstrak isang buong sipi (citation) ng pinagmulan pinakamahalagang impormasyon parehong uri at estilo ng wikang matatagpuan sa orihinal, kabilang na rin ang wikang panteknikal mga susing salita at parirala na madaling nagpapakilala sa nilalaman at tuon ng ginawa malinaw, maiksi, at makapangyarihang paggamit ng wika CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL SINTESIS ARALIN 1: Kahulugan, Layunin, at Gamit ng Sintesis SINTESIS - Nagmula ang sintesis sa salitang Griyego na “syntithenai” na binubuo ng -syn na ang ibig sabihin ay kasama o magkasama, at -tithenai na nangangahulugang ilagay. - Ang sintesis ay nangangahulugang sama-samang ilagay. - Ang sintesis ay isang anyo ng pag-uulat ng impormasyon sa pinaikling paraan upang mapag sama-sama at mapag-isa ang mga magkakaugnay na datos mula sa iba’t ibang sanggunian. MGA KATANGIAN NG SINTESIS Pagsasama-sama ng Impormasyon Ang sintesis ay naglalahad ng mga ideya at impormasyon mula sa iba't ibang pinagkukunan sa isang organisadong paraan. Malinaw na Paglalahad Naglalahad ng mga ideya at impormasyon sa isang malinaw, maayos at madaling maunawaan na paraan. Paglikha ng Bagong Kaalaman Sa pamamagitan ng pagsasama-sama ng mga ideya, ang sintesis ay nagbibigay daan sa paglikha ng bagong kaalaman at pag-unawa sa isang paksa. Pagpapakita ng Pananaw Sa sintesis, lalo na ang argumentatibong sintesis, ang manunulat ay nagpapakita ng kanyang sariling pananaw o posisyon hinggil sa isang paksa. Pagpapalakas ng Argumento Ang sintesis ay nagpapalakas ng argumento ng manunulat sa pamamagitan ng pagsasama-sama ng mga ideya mula sa iba't ibang pinagkukunan. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL LAYUNIN NG SYNTHESIS Paglalahad ng Ugnayan Ipinapakita nito ang koneksyon ng mga ideya mula sa iba't ibang pinagkukunan, na tumutulong sa mga mambabasa na maunawaan ang kabuuang konteksto ng paksa. Pagbibigay ng Komprehensibong Pagsusuri Ang sintesis ay nag-ambag sa mas malalim na pagsusuri ng mga impormasyon, na nagreresulta sa pagbuo ng mga bagong pananaw at argumento. Pagpapalawak ng Kaalaman Sa proseso ng pagsulat ng sintesis, ang manunulat ay nagiging mas malawak ang kaalaman sa paksa, na nagiging dahilan upang mas maayos na maipahayag ang mga ideya. Pagpapalalim ng Pag-unawa Nakatutulong ito sa mga mambabasa na mas maunawaan ang mga komplikadong ideya at impormasyon sa isang mas madaling paraan. Organisadong Paglalahad Tinutulungan ng sintesis ang manunulat na maayos na maipresenta ang mga ideya sa isang sistematikong paraan, na nagpadali sa pag-unawa ng mga mambabasa. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL ARALIN 2: Mga Anyo/ Uri ng Sintesis DALAWANG ANYO NG SINTESIS Eksplanatori - Naglalayon iyong tulungan ang mambabatas na maunawaan ang paksa. Argumentatibo - Naglalayon itong maglahad ng pananaw ng sumulat. EXPLANATORI NA SINTESIS Ang explanatory na sintesis ay nakatuon sa paglalahad ng mga impormasyong nakalap para sa paksa. Hindi nito layunin na maglahad ng argumento. Ang layunin ng manunulat ay maunawaan ng mga mambabasa ang mga impormasyong nakapaloob sa sintesis sa malinaw at organisadong paraan ng pagsulat. HAKBANG SA PAGSULAT NG ISANG EKSPLANATORI NA SINTESIS Panimula Ilatag ang paksa ng sulatin. Siguraduhing malinaw sa mga mambabasa ang paksa. Katawan Unang mahalagang ideya Pangalawang mahalagang ideya Pangatlong mahalagang ideya Wakas o Konklusyon ng Sulatin Mahalaga na malinaw ang paksa para sa mga mambabasa at walang iniwang kontrobersiya o kalituhan. ARGUMENTATIBO NA SINTESIS Naglalayon itong maglahad ng pananaw ng sumulat. May isang argumento tungkol sa paksa at nabibigyang-katwiran o pagtibayin ito. Nagtataglay ito ng mga opinyon na batay sa mga impormasyong nasaliksik ng manunulat. Gumagamit ang manunulat ng mga salitang naglalahad ng sariling opinyon. CHEMISTRY — PE — MIL — EAPP | PHYSICS — PHILOSOPHY — PR II — FSPL HAKBANG SA PAGSULAT NG ARGUMENTATIBO NA SINTESIS 1. Suriin ang mga Sanggunian. 2. Gumawa o pumili ng isang mahusay na paksa para sa iyong isusulat na sintesis. 3. Gawing matibay at malinaw ang iyong posisyon o punto sa isang sulatin. Panimula Thesis statement Unang mahalagang ideya Pangalawang mahalagang ideya Pangatlong mahalagang ideya Katawan ng Sulatin Unang mahalagang ideya Pangalawang mahalagang ideya Pangatlong mahalagang ideya Wakas o Kongklusyon Huling pahayag na iiwan sa mambabasa para sa sintesis na isinulat. Panghihikayat at p
