Active Listening Study Skills PDF

Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Les...

Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 1 Teacher: Chouchani ABIDI Med Active Listening Outline: 1- Introduction 2- Basic definitions 3- Active listening vs. hearing (passive listening) 4- Why we want to know more about Listening 5- Signs of Active Listening 6- Types of listening 7- Strategies for active listening 8- Barriers to active listening 9- Listening styles to avoid 10- Conclusion 1-Introduction Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a major impact on your learning, the quality of your relationships with others, and your job effectiveness. Active listening is a way of listening and responding to another person that improves mutual understanding. It is an important first step to defuse the situation and seek solutions to problems. In lectures, students are expected to work harder than teachers because they are supposed to know what they talk about, and students are less knowledgeable about topics. We spend 45% of our communication time in listening; 30 % in speaking; 16 % in reading; and 9 % in writing. We remember only 25 % of what we hear after two days. Are you a good listener? How many times you should listen to answer some silly questions? Is there any difference between hearing and listening? 2-Basic Definitions A- Hearing: It involves receiving sound waves through our ears, which transmit them through the hearing mechanism. These sound waves (vibrations) are sent to the brain for interpretation. It is in this stage that hearing and listening differ. B- Listening: It is the process of receiving, attending, understanding, responding and remembering ( Fujishin, 2009). It involves going beyond simply hearing the words that another person speaks but also seeking to understand the meaning and intent behind them. It requires being an active participant in the communication process 1 Lesson 01: Active Listening So, while hearing can be a passive process, listening involves considerable brain activity. Listening requires the presence of the brain which must be actively working upon the words being heard. That is, carrying out cognitive functions like analysing, classifying, interpreting, etc. All in all, we can say that active listening means listening actively, concentrating on what is being said rather than passively hearing the message of the speaker (passive listening). 3-Active Listening vs. Hearing (Passive Listening) Features Active listening Hearing Nature skill (can be developed) sense attentional process (purposeful) physiological process conscious subconscious active passive Communication a two-way mode a one-way mode Reaction verbal/nonverbal none Effort Effortful effortless Cognitive processes analyse, evaluate, summarise … none 4-Why We Want to Know More about Listening Many reasons can explain why we want to understand listening. These include: understand the factors that effect listening abilities use effective strategies to improve our performance develop skills for note-taking/communication So, good (active) listening maximizes understanding, and a good listener becomes a good note-taker. In communication, active listening is important because it keeps you engaged with your conversation partner in a positive way. It also makes the other person feel heard and valued. This skill is the foundation of a successful conversation in any setting—whether at work, at home, or in social situations.When you practice active listening, you are fully engaged and immersed in what the other person is saying. 5-Signs of Active Listening Active listening involves showing interest in listening to the speaker through verbal/non-verbal messages (behaviours) a-nonverbal signs: smile, eye contact, head nodding, facial expression, mirroring (automatic reflection of the speaker’s facial expressions), body language, posture, gesture, etc. b-verbal signs: positive reinforcement (words of encouragement; yes, indeed, good…), questions, reflection, clarification (to ensure correct understanding), summarisation (repeating main elements to the speaker to correct if necessary ), comments, etc. 2 Lesson 01: Active Listening 6-Types of Listening a- Appreciative listening: to listen for enjoyment and pleasure. A good example is listening to music, especially as a way to relax. b- Empathetic (therapeutic) listening: to listen to understand and relate to the speaker’s feelings, emotions,..without interruption (stops or questions). c- Critical listening: to listen to understand, interpret, examine, and analyse the speaker’s message. Its goal is to evaluate what is being said (needs some previous knowledge). d- Active listening: to listen with full attention and focus in order to understand and learn new knowledge, especially, in educational settings such as lectures, labs, conference…, etc. e- Rapport listening: When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that encourages the other person to trust and like us. This type of listening is common in situations of negotiation. f- Informational listening: Whenever you listen to gain novel information. This is true in many day-to- day situations, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked through a technical problem with a computer. 7-Strategies for Active Listening Create a clear listening goal: Intention to listen to learn, show a positive attitude towards the module, the subject, the speaker … Familiarise yourself with the topic before class: Consult the syllabus, previous lectures, concepts, terminology… Use concentration strategies: Eliminate as many external and internal distractors as possible to free up the working memory space. Keep an open mind: Avoid prejudging information or speaker; set personal opinions aside. Express an interest in the topics: It can be achieved through verbal and nonverbal messages. Participate in the learning process: Ask questions, respond to questions, do an activity … 8-Barriers to active listening a- Physical: Noise, location (from the speaker) light, temperature, furniture, etc. b- Physiological: Sickness, fatigue, sleeplessness, hearing problems, hunger, etc. c- Psychological: Stress, anger, anxiety, fear, daydreaming, assumption about speaker or subject, having a problem, etc. d- Cognitive: The difference between speech and thought rate, lack of preparation, poorly structured message, etc. 9-Listening Styles to Avoid ❑ Refusing to listen (deliberately). ❑ Pseudo-listening (pretending to listen) ❑ Listening to evaluate: the focus is on judging the speaker’s message (positively or negatively). Judging does not encourage understanding; it hinders communication. ❑ Selective listening: this negative type of listening implies that the listener is somehow biased toward what they are hearing. Bias can be based on preconceived ideas or emotionally difficult communications. 3 Lesson 01: Active Listening  ❑ Narcissistic listening: self-centred listening (focus on the self). ❑ Aggressive listening: a type of listening used to attack the speaker. 10-Conclusion Active listening involves listening with all senses and giving full attention to the speaker. It is beneficial for the speaker and the listener alike. So, being an ‘active listener’ is one of the prerequisites for any successful student as it is an indispensable means for maximising learning. Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a major impact on your job effectiveness and on the quality of your relationships with other people. Active listening requires you to listen attentively to a speaker, understand what they’re saying, respond and reflect on what’s being said, and retain the information for later. This keeps both listener and speaker actively engaged in the conversation. 4 Lesson 01: Active Listening  Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 2 Teacher: CHOUCHANI ABIDI Med Identifying Lecture Styles Outline: 1- Introduction 2- Historical background 3- Definition 4- Conventional lecture form 5- Learning outcomes 6- Types of lectures 7- Importance of Identifying lecture styles 8- Strategies to succeed in lectures 9- Conclusion 1- Introduction The lecture is the standard model of academic teaching. It is typically one of a series delivered by the same speaker as part of an academic degree program. The teacher normally speaks for around an hour, but in some cultures, it may be longer. Rather than a discussion between the presenter and students, the objective of a lecture may be the presenting and understanding of facts and ideas. It implies the presence of a lecturer and tens or hundreds of students in a lecture theatre. Sometimes lecturers write on the board with chalk and sometimes use an overhead projector to provide visual support for students. Students are supposed to take notes while listening with, generally, little interaction. A seminar or tutorial is a class that focuses on interaction and discussion of ideas. 2- Historical background This term is derived from the Latin word “lectare” meaning “to read aloud.” This technique goes back hundreds of years to the monasteries of Europe before the use of printed books. Scholars used to travel hundreds of miles to gain access to specific texts. So, they would listen to a monk reading a book and the scholars would copy it (the book) word for word. 3- Definition A lecture is used as a way of teaching in higher education all over the world. So, how is it defined? Below is a number of definitions: ❑ It is the transference of the notes of the lecturer to the notes of the student without passing through the brain of either (Anon), ❑ It is a discourse given before an audience or class, especially for instruction. (Merriam-Webster), ❑ It is a talk or speech given to a group of people to teach them about a particular subject (Merriam– Webster), 1 Lesson 02: Identifying lecture styles  ❑ It is a speech read or delivered before an audience or class, especially for instruction. (dictionary.com ), ❑ It is a formal talk on a serious subject given to a group of people, especially students. (Cambridge Dictionary, online) ❑ It is an exposition of a given subject delivered before an audience or class for instruction. (The Free Dictionary, online) ❑ It is a talk given to a group of people to teach them about a particular subject, often at a university or college (Oxford) 4- Conventional lecture form The conventional form of a lecture is teacher-centred and entails one-way presentations. This model of teaching is described as Didactic, which means intending to instruct/teach. It is also viewed as an example of passive learning in which the only activities students engage in during a lecture are listening and note- taking. Supporters of the traditional lecture form argue that teaching is the most cost-effective way of teaching students. That is, one teacher (lecturer) can teach hundreds of students in a large lecture theatre. Those arguments include: a- communication enthusiasm for the topic (which cannot be gained by independent learning), b- providing a structure ( or framework ) for the material: a good form for emphasizing certain points which students should read about because they are essential and may relate to other topics, c- providing current information (which may not be included in textbooks or other resources, not up-to-date/ present recent research results), d- tailoring material to the student's needs (according to the depth or the right level for the audience), e- supporting the increasing number of students and the lack of facilities (teaching- inside the university). Critics of traditional lecturing say that it is usually passive and didactic. It is also: a- boring (little intellectual stimulation), b- tiresome (listeners tire of a lecture very quickly), c- suitable for auditory learners (other learning styles are neglected), d- students weak in note-taking will suffer, e- teachers may not know about students' understanding because of the lack of exchange. 5- Learning outcomes In recent years a great deal of discussion has focused on “active learning” in higher education. This type of learning incorporates such interactive activities as discussion, questioning, participation, problem- solving, etc., to encourage deeper learning. Also, there are calls for adjusting the modalities of learning to the knowledge outcomes (expected learning results/objectives). Hence, it is necessary to know the types of outcomes (cognitive objectives) at the tertiary level: a- factual/conceptual understanding b- application and use c- problem-solving and evaluation It must be noted that some categories of outcomes are better gained using specific teaching vs. learning methods/types. 2 Lesson 02: Identifying lecture styles 6- Styles (types) of lectures Lectures can take different styles including topic-list, question-answer, compare-contrast, series of events, cause-effect, and problem-solution. The lecture style (sometimes called the formal authority style) is familiar to anyone who’s sat through long unidirectional lectures in giant university auditoriums. This teaching style is often used with large groups of students when a lot of interaction between the teacher and students is not feasible. The subject matter in the lecturer style, most of the time, is singular and predetermined. Students are encouraged to take notes and ask questions at the end. There are usually no activities planned. a- Topic list: The teacher presents the topic followed by subtopics, details, and sub-details. Words like first, second, next, and finally are used in this style. b- question-answer: T introduces the topic followed by some questions about the topic. Each question is answered after it is introduced. Words used are like what, why, which, when, etc. c- compare-contrast: The teacher starts with the identification of 2 objects that will be compared (similar object) and contrasted ( different object ) All words serving this purpose are used: alike, equal, resemble, the same, different, distinct, disparate, opposite, on the contrary. d- series of events: The teacher identifies the topic and then describes an initial event, step or stage related to the topic. Additional events, steps or stages are gradually presented. Words like initially, at the outset, next, later, etc., are used. e- Cause-effect: The teacher begins by presenting the cause of something, followed by effects related to the cause in detail. Words used include as, since, thus, consequently, etc. f- Problem-solution: T introduces a problem and says why it is so (problem). T describes solutions to the problem providing details as needed. T concludes by emphasizing the final solution. Words used include puzzle, quiz, issue, dispute, solution, solve, answer investigate, examine, check, etc. You may find other classifications of lectures: 1. By Levels of Student Interaction: formal lecture, Socratic lecture, Semi-formal lecture, Lecture- discussion, Interactive lecture. 2. Categorized by Content: Expository lecture/oral essay Storytelling lecture, Point-by-point lecture Lecture-demonstration Problem-solving lecture. 3. Categorization by Medium: Naked lecture, Chalk and talk lecture, Multimedia lecture, Video lecture. Identifying the lecture style used by your teacher will help you write good notes in class. By identifying lecture styles and adapting their learning strategies accordingly, students can optimize their university experience, enhance their understanding, and achieve academic success. 7- Importance of Identifying Lecture Styles a. Personalized Learning: Understanding lecture styles allows students to identify approaches that align with their learning preferences, maximizing their effectiveness in absorbing information. b. Active Participation: Recognizing lecture styles encourages students to adopt active learning strategies, such as taking detailed notes, asking questions, and engaging in discussions. c. Metacognition: Identifying lecture styles fosters metacognition, enabling students to reflect on their learning processes and adapt their study habits accordingly. d. Effective Note-Taking: Understanding lecture styles helps students develop effective note-taking strategies, capturing key points, organizing information, and enhancing comprehension. e. Engagement and Motivation: Recognizing lecture styles promotes student engagement and motivation, as they can anticipate and prepare for different teaching approaches. 3 Lesson 02: Identifying lecture styles 8- Strategies to succeed in lectures For students to succeed in coping with lectures, they should undergo these steps: Step 1. Pre-lecture preparation: 24 hours before the lecture, devote about 30 minutes to preview the material to be covered (especially if you have the syllabus). read the title and chapter objectives, skim the chapter by reading subheadings and viewing the content under those subheadings. Begin applying what you see within the text and images to what you already know. read the chapter summary to gain familiarity with the concepts, acknowledge unfamiliar vocabulary which may hinder your understanding, and note questions that may arise in your mind. Step 2. Be active during the lecture: now that you’ve effectively prepped for the lecture’s content, taking notes and following along should be far more manageable. However, concentration can be affected by a variety of factors, so to ensure success, practice the tips below: avoid distraction (external or internal), try to find answers to the questions you noted in stage one (mentally alert), include ambiguous or incomplete information in your notes so that you can get more complete answers later. Step 3. Post-lecture review: within 24 hours of the lecture, it’s important to solidify the information that you took in. This is the most time-consuming step in the process, but it becomes easier by consistently following the first two steps: compare your pre-lecture notes to post-lecture ones. Did the information seem to link together more readily during the lecture? utilise your resources (textbook, lecture slides, teaching assistant, tutor, supplemental instruction, etc.) to fill in any gaps that remain from the lecture, test your understanding through questions (e.g. study questions of chapters), revise your notes frequently preparing for the exam. 9- Conclusion Identifying lecture styles and their importance for students at university is crucial for ensuring effective learning and engagement in higher education. Lecture styles can significantly impact student comprehension, retention, and overall academic success. By understanding how different lecturers teach, students can develop strategies for learning effectively in each situation. After reviewing a variety of different lecture classifications, we believe lectures can be classified based on the extent of student involvement, the classification of content, the medium through which information is disseminated, etc. Lectures from several categories collaborate. As an example, one teacher may deliver a semiformal, problem-solving, whilst another may deliver a lecture-discussion, point-by-point, multimedia lecture. Although different disciplines have norms based on a common combination, the entire range of combinations can be found in college and university classes. 4 Lesson 02: Identifying lecture styles  Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 3 Teacher: Chouchani ABIDI Med Building Vocabulary Outline: 1. Introduction 2. Words in numbers 3. Origins of English vocabulary 4. What is vocabulary? 5. Benefits of learning new words 6. Types of vocabulary 7. Structure of vocabulary 8. Aspects of knowing a new word 9. Strategies for Vocabulary Learning 10. Extra info 11. Conclusion 1. Introduction Academic excellence in the fast-paced and highly intellectually challenging world of academia is largely dependent on having a strong vocabulary. University students who possess a strong command of language are better able to understand challenging books, communicate concepts clearly and elegantly, and succeed in a variety of academic pursuits. A successful university student needs a wide vocabulary to successfully engage with their studies, research, and intellectual activities, much as a competent artisan needs a variety of tools. This lesson explores the topic of vocabulary building for students in higher education and offers useful tools and techniques to improve your language skills. It will give you the resources you need to broaden your vocabulary and excel academically. 2. Words in numbers The English language has more than a million words. 2000 words are enough to understand English. Only 2,500 words make up about 80 % of everything we hear or write. An average educated speaker has a vocabulary of about 20,000 words, but he or she uses far fewer. An average native English speaker uses around 2000 words. Shakespeare used around 30,000 words in his writing. 3. Origins of English vocabulary a) Over half of all English words come from Latin (school). b) 12 % of words originally come from Greek (theatre). c) Many words also come from: 1 Lesson 03: Building Vocabulary  ✓ French: Education ✓ Chinese: typhoon (a tropical storm) ✓ Finnish: sauna (a room used as a steam bath) ✓ Gujarati (Indian state of Gujarat ): bungalow ✓ Turkish: kiosk ✓ Arabic: sugar (‫)سكر‬ 4. What is vocabulary? ▪ Vocabulary refers to all the words known and used by a particular person, or all the words used in a particular subject or language. (we cannot say ‘a vocabulary’) ▪ Knowing a word, however, is not as simple as merely being able to recognise or use it. ▪ Vocabulary usually develops with age and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. ▪ Vocabulary is the glue that holds stories, ideas, and content together, making comprehension accessible for one and all. 5. Benefits of learning new words ▪ The more words you know, the better you can express yourself (communication). ▪ Ability to interpret the world ▪ Become a better writer ▪ Achieve a better academic career ▪ More success at work ▪ Become a better public speaker ▪ Gain the respect of people 6. Types of vocabulary Meaning/Oral Vocabulary speaking listening Expressive Receptive Vocabulary Vocabulary writing reading Literate/Written Vocabulary ❖ Reading vocabulary is all the words a person can recognise when reading. This is generally the largest type of vocabulary simply because a person tends to be exposed to more words by reading than by listening. 2 Lesson 03: Building Vocabulary  ❖ Listening vocabulary is all the words a person can recognise when listening to speech. People may still understand words they were not exposed to before using cues such as tone, gestures, the topic of discussion and the social context of the conversation. ❖ Speaking vocabulary is all the words a person uses in speech. It is likely to be a subset of the listening vocabulary. ❖ Writing vocabulary is all the words used in various forms of writing from formal essays to Twitter feeds. Many written words do not commonly appear in speech. 7. Structure of vocabulary pronunciation usage vocabulary spelling meaning 8. Aspects of knowing a new word Understanding its meaning Knowing how to put it into a sentence Knowing when to use it (style and register) Knowing if it is formal or informal (slang, taboo) Knowing if it is common or unusual Being able to spell it Recognising it when you hear it said Being able to pronounce it (use CD-ROM) 9. Strategies for Vocabulary Learning a. Choosing a dictionary ▪ two types: specialist or general language dictionaries ▪ a general language dictionary can be: monolingual or bilingual ▪ a monolingual dictionary forces you to think in English, so you are improving your English even as you study ▪ electronic (CD-ROMs) and online dictionaries ▪ thesaurus: lists of words that have similar meanings ▪ (the most famous one in Britain is Roget’s Thesaurus) b. Learn through context ▪ learn new words by reading them in texts and by trying to understand them from the contexts in which they occur. ▪ read texts that reflect your interest ▪ after you meet a new word, and be ready to recognise examples of it in other texts (more exposure) 3 Lesson 03: Building Vocabulary c. Plan your vocabulary learning ▪ How many words do you intend to learn each day? ▪ Where are you going to learn them? ▪ Which material are you going to read? ▪ How often are you going to revise them? d. Identify word parts ▪ roots: knowing some of the most commonly used roots gives you access to many words at once. For example, the word root cogn- means to know (recognise) ▪ prefixes: the word part placed at the beginning of a word. For example, review (re = again) + (view) ▪ suffixes: the word part placed at the end of a word. For example, economic (economy + ic) e. Synonyms and antonyms ▪ a synonym: a word which is similar or has the same meaning ▪ an antonym: a word which means the opposite ▪ your previous knowledge of words helps you know the structure of newly learnt words and their use. ▪ thesaurus can be a good help f. Homophones and homographs ▪ homophones are two or more words that sound alike but are spelt differently and have different meanings: their, there, and they’re / to, too, two. ▪ homographs are words which are spelt alike but have two different meanings: close, close g. Context Clues ▪ use context clues to help you determine the meaning of an unknown word from context: definition, mood, inference, example, experience… ▪ context clues expose you to more linguistic input h. Learning aids ▪ word association: words associated through meaning are learnt together ▪ pictures (human body) and diagrams (word tree) ▪ tables ▪ matrices ▪ word class (verbs, nouns / using different colours ▪ semantic (word) maps ▪ cards: word on one side/ meaning on the other side ▪ tech tools: podcasts, audio library, Anki (flashcards) i. Vocabulary notebook and revision ▪ have a notebook for recording all your newly learned words 4 Lesson 03: Building Vocabulary  ▪ organise your notebook in a way that facilitates access and revision ▪ Carry your notebook wherever you go ▪ frequent exposure to words helps memorise them ▪ use spaced learning to revisit and consolidate your new vocabulary j. Making the new words active ▪ use the words you learned in meaningful sentences ▪ try to write sentences that relate to your life and needs ▪ make a point of using the new words in your next class homework or exam ▪ watch out for your new words in your general reading ▪ write a paragraph or story using and linking the words you learned together 10. Extra info ✓ The shortest and most commonly used word is “I.” ✓ The longest word refers to a type of lung disease: Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis. (25 letters) ✓ Swims will be swims even when turned upside down. ✓ A pangram sentence contains every letter in the language: “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.” ✓ The shortest complete sentence is “I am.” ✓ Crutch words are unnecessary words that we use to fill the dead spaces while speaking such as: well, you know, obviously, so, and actually. 11. Conclusion Note that vocabulary development is a continuing process, a constant polishing of your language arsenal, as you start on your academic journey. Accept the pleasure of learning new words, appreciate their nuances, and easily incorporate them into your daily interactions and written expressions. Allow your vocabulary to evolve in conjunction with your knowledge and intellectual growth, mirroring the dynamism of your academic endeavors. You will certainly create a rich language texture with devotion and determination, allowing you to flourish in your education, research, and future interests. 5 Lesson 03: Building Vocabulary  Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 4 Teacher: Chouchani ABIDI Med Context Clues Outline: 1. Introduction 2. Definition 3. When to use clues 4. How to use context clues? 5. Types of clues 6. Importance of Context clues 7. Conclusion 1. Introduction In order to decipher the meaning of a new word, before checking your dictionary, it’s often useful to look at what comes before and after that word. The surrounding words can give readers helpful information about the meaning and structure of the new word, as well as how it is used. Learning the meaning of a word through its use in a sentence or paragraph is the most practical way to build vocabulary since a dictionary is not always available when a reader encounters an unknown word. A reader must be aware that many words have several possible meanings. Only by being sensitive to the circumstances in which a word is used can the reader decide upon an appropriate definition to fit the context. At the end of this lesson, you are going to: Identify the different types of context clues. Practice using context clues while reading. 2. Definition Context clues are hints found within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that a reader can use to understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words. Context clues are elements of grammatical and visual composition that suggest meaning. Context clues are words or phrases that surround an unfamiliar word and provide hints about its meaning. They are an essential tool for vocabulary building, as they allow readers to decipher the meaning of new words without having to rely on a dictionary. 3. When to use clues A reader should rely on context clues when an obvious clue to meaning is provided, or when only a general sense of the meaning is needed for the reader’s purposes. Lesson 04: Context Clues 1  Context clues should not be used when: a precise meaning is required, clues suggest several possible definitions, nearby words are unfamiliar, and when the unknown word is a common one that will be needed again. In these cases, a dictionary should be consulted. 4. How to Use Context Clues To use context clues effectively, readers should follow these steps: Identify the unfamiliar word. Read the sentence or paragraph surrounding the unfamiliar word carefully. Look for clues that can help you determine the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Use the clues to infer the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Check your understanding by using the unfamiliar word in a sentence of your own. Language, the very heart of human communication, is a vast and intricate fabric of words, each with its own subtlety and meaning. We come across a plethora of foreign phrases as we navigate the written and spoken word, their importance obscured by our limited vocabulary. Fortunately, we are not left to solve these linguistic puzzles on our own. A treasure trove of clues, subtle suggestions that help us towards understanding the unexpected, is hidden inside the surrounding material. These language cues, known as context clues, are great tools for increasing our vocabulary and improving our comprehension. 5. Types of clues There are several different types of context clues, each of which provides a different way of understanding the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Some of the most common types include: a. Definition /Description Clue The new term may be formally defined, or sufficient explanation may be given within the sentence or in the following sentence. Clues to definition include “that is, namely, is defined as…” commas, dashes, and parentheses. Example: ✓ His emaciation, that is, his skeleton-like appearance, was frightening to see. ✓ “Skeleton-like appearance” is the definition of “emaciation.” Lesson 04: Context Clues 2  b. Example Clue Sometimes when a reader finds a new word, an example might be found nearby that helps to explain its meaning. Words like “including, such as, and for example…” point out example clues. Example: ✓ Celestial bodies, including the sun, moon, and stars, have fascinated man through the centuries. ✓ “Celestial” objects are those in the sky or heavens. c. Synonym / Restatement Clue The reader may discover the meaning of an unknown word because it repeats an idea expressed in familiar words nearby. In other words, that is; commas, dashes, and parentheses are used. Example: ✓ Flooded with spotlights–the focus of all attention–the new Miss America began her year- long reign. She was the cynosure of all eyes for the rest of the evening. ✓ “Cynosure” means “the focus of all attention.” d. Contrast /Antonym Clue An opposite-meaning context clue contrasts the meaning of an unfamiliar word with the meaning of a familiar term. Words like “although,” “however,” and “but” may signal contrast clues. Example: ✓ When the light brightens, the pupils of the eyes contract; however, when it grows darker, they dilate. ✓ “Dilate” is the opposite of “contract.” e. Mood /Tone Clue The author sets a mood, and the meaning of the unknown word must harmonize with this mood. Examples: ✓ When the children at the birthday party saw the cake, the balloons and the clown, they were ecstatic. ✓ “ecstatic,” which means “delighted and jumping for joy,” fits into the mood set by the words “party,” “cake,” and “balloons.” f. Experience Clue Sometimes a reader knows from experience how people or things act in a given situation. This knowledge provides a clue to a word’s meaning. Examples: ✓ During those first weeks at university, the thoughts of a freshman go back to high school where he was “in,” knew everyone, and felt at home. A feeling of nostalgia sweeps over him. ✓ “Nostalgia” means a sentimental longing for the past g. Word Structure /Analysis Clue The parts used to construct a word can be direct clues to meaning. Knowledge of roots, prefixes, and suffixes can aid a reader in using this type of context clue. Learning a one-word part can add Lesson 04: Context Clues 3  dozens of words to a reader’s vocabulary. The power of word parts lies in the ability to combine the roots and affixes with the context in which a word is used to discover the author’s meaning. Examples: ✓ The story is incredible. ✓ The root “cred” means “to believe,” and the prefix “in” means “not.” Therefore, if a story is incredible, it is unbelievable. h. Inference Clue Sufficient clues might be available for the careful reader to make an educated guess at the meaning. Example: ✓ She told her mother, “It was a dull meeting! I was bored every minute. The conversation was vapid.” ✓ “Vapid” means “uninteresting.” i. Cause and Effect Clue The author explains the reason for or the result of the word. Words like “because,” “since,” “therefore,” “thus,” “so,” etc. may signal context clues. Example: ✓ She wanted to impress all her dinner guests with the food she served, so she carefully studied the necessary culinary arts. ✓ “Culinary” means “food preparation.” j. Punctuation Readers can also use clues of punctuation and type style to infer meaning, such as quotation marks (showing the word has a special meaning), dashes, parentheses or brackets (enclosing a definition), and italics (showing the word will be defined). Examples: ▪ Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s shopkeeper, in the story. ▪ Tom's father was a haberdasher (men’s shopkeeper) in the story. ▪ In the story, Tom's father was a haberdasher or men’s shopkeeper. ▪ Tom's father was a “haberdasher”. He had a clothing store for men. 6. Importance of Context Clues Context clues are an important tool for vocabulary building for several reasons: ▪ They allow readers to learn the meaning of new words naturally and contextually. ▪ They help readers to develop a deeper understanding of the nuances of language. ▪ They can help to improve reading comprehension. ▪ They illuminate the meaning of unfamiliar terms by drawing upon the surrounding text. ▪ They provide a contextual framework, offering synonyms, antonyms, comparisons, examples, and even definitions, allowing us to infer the meaning of the unknown word from its surroundings. ▪ They enable us to navigate the enormous landscape of language, revealing word mysteries, growing our vocabulary, and enriching our comprehension of the world around us. Lesson 04: Context Clues 4  ▪ We transform reading from a passive practice into an active quest for comprehension by leveraging the power of context clues. ▪ Through context clues, we transform into investigators, putting together the language perplexity, decoding the meaning of novel terms, and thereby extending our lexicon. ▪ Each new word we learn is a feather in our linguistic cap, allowing us to understand the nuances of language and its depth of expression. 7. Conclusion When you figure out the meaning of a word from context, you are guessing what the word means. To do this, you use the hints and clues of the other words and sentences, You won't always be right, but many times you will be. You might not be able to guess the exact meaning of a word, but you may be close enough to get the meaning of the sentence it is in. Context Clues are hints that the author gives to help define a difficult or unusual word. They are integral to how we make sense of things. The clue may appear within the same sentence as the word to which it refers, or it may follow in a preceding sentence. Because most of the vocabulary is gained through reading, students must be able to recognize and take advantage of context clues. Context clues give readers the ability to make sense of words for which they don’t know the meaning. They suggest meaning(s), conceal or explain others. With practice, readers can become more adept at using context clues to decode the meaning of new words. This skill will help them to improve their vocabulary and comprehension skills as lifelong learners. Lesson 04: Context Clues 5  Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 5 Teacher: Chouchani ABIDI Med Being an Effective Reader (Reading Skills and Styles) Outline: 1. Introduction 2. Definition 3. Purpose of reading 4. Importance of reading 5. Reading skills 6. Reading styles (Types) 6.1. Skimming 6.2. Scanning 6.3. Deep study reading 6.4. Extensive reading 6.5. Intensive reading 6.6. Browsing 7. Conclusion 1. Introduction Reading is a gateway to a whole universe of learning and enjoyment. It offers us a big opportunity to interact with a variety of written texts (material) such as books, newspapers, magazines, stories, manuals, poems, textbooks, articles, instructions, etc., for different purposes ranging from reading for school, for fun, for a specific piece of knowledge, etc. For some readers, this skill (activity) is easy; for others, it is a hard task. This is mainly noticeable in schools and universities where students face great hardships in reading for study. Researchers agree that reading is a complex process involving several operations. However, when we read in a second language (or foreign language), the process is even more complex because of the cognitive capacities and first language interference with the second language. 2. Definition There are many definitions given to the term reading: 1 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01)  Reading is an active, fluent process which involves the reader and the reading materials in building meaning, (Anderson, 1999) Reading is converting print into language and then to the message intended by the author, (Koda, 2007) Reading is the process of extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. It consists of three elements: the reader, the text, and the activity or purpose for reading, (R and Reading, Study Group, 2002 ) Reading is the process of receiving and interpreting information encoded in language form via the medium of print. All these definitions have at their core the term “meaning” which reflects deliberate engagement in thinking processes by readers. However, the construction of “meaning” is influenced mainly by two factors: the kind of text being read and its contents, and by the purpose of reading. Other researchers claim that other factors are vital for getting meaning from written material. These include the reader’s prior knowledge and experiences, and the nature of the reading. Whatever the type of the written text is, researchers agree that different kinds of written works require different skills to read them. Hence, students need to know the essential elements of distinct kinds of writing they are likely to be asked to read to read well in university courses. Knowing the purpose of reading is a key element to more active, effective reading. 3. Purpose of reading The purpose is the WHY of the reading plan. Knowing the reason for which you are reading, can help you find a focus. The purpose can be determined by the reader himself or his instructor. Here are some: a) reading to comprehend an idea: to understand a new idea or concept or a new way to solve a problem. b) reading to connect ideas: all reading tells a story, and when you read you can understand how individual parts of the story connect; how things are interconnected logic. c) reading to learn more: sometimes, we need to get a general picture of something as part of a lesson or assignment. But, later we may want to read more about that idea or concept (reading on our own) d) reading for a test: although this is an essential activity, it cannot be a primary purpose for reading. We must read to learn first, then read to test our knowledge. 2 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01)  e) reading to appreciate literature: it is necessary to read fiction, such as novels, poetry, or plays to learn about the customs traditions, and culture of other peoples which facilities tolerance and understanding between nations and cultures. f) reading for pleasure (fun): some people like reading for their pleasure. Genres and types of writing may vary from one reader to another (science fiction, horror, romance…) g) Reading to improve writing: It allows each one to become a better writer while building his/ her vocabulary. It expands their viewpoints, gives them a thorough understanding of the world, and improves communication skills. 4. Importance of reading Reading is important because it: a. develops the mind: the mind is a muscle which needs exercise. When you read you engage in various mental processes to understand the meaning. Thus, the more you read, the more your cognitive abilities and skills grow. b. develops imagination: with reading, you can go anywhere in the world or even out of it. This world of imagination shows you that nothing is impossible. You can experience new things and view the world from different angles. This boosts creativity and the power of prediction. c. improves self-image: when you read, your understanding of the world develops. This enhances your self-esteem and improves your self-confidence. It builds your personality and shapes your thoughts and attitudes. d. develops knowledge, skills and strategies: the more we engage in the reading activity, the more we gain knowledge and experience, the more we improve our reading skills and strategies (ever-lasting training) e. is a good communication tool: messages transmitted through reading enable us to communicate better with people either through writing or orally. People who can't read (illiterate) can be easily controlled and manipulated. 5. Reading Skills A reading Skill is an acquired ability to do well; proficiency. The use of a skill is effortless and automatic (habit). It is also referred to as an ability or capacity acquired through deliberate systematic, and sustained effort to carry out complex activities. There are many reading skills: – previewing (* predicting/anticipating) – forming/answering questions – constructing mental images – making associations ( connections ) – summarising – using graphic organisers – concentrating – making annotations 3 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01)  – adjusting speed – reading selectively – looking for signposts – testing by reading – explaining to someone – underlining/highlighting – re-reading – inferring – reading critically N.B. * predicting: say what the text will be about before reading * anticipating: activate prior knowledge to comprehend the text. The benefits of reading skills include, among many others, maximising understanding, saving and managing time effectively, enhancing fluent reading, and improving reading scores ( IELTS, CELTA, TOFEL…). 6. Reading Styles (Types) There are six major reading styles. 6.1 Skimming Skimming is reading for gist. Skim reading is useful when we want to get a quick impression or general overview /idea of a book or article, etc. Skimming refers to the way of reading in which readers quickly run their eyes across a text for its gist. It is useful when we have to read a large amount of material in a short amount of time or have to review information. Use: look for “signposts”: chapter headings, sub-headings, lists, figures, read the first/last paragraphs, read the first/last sentences of a paragraph, and make notes of key words, phrases and points to summarise the main themes. Ignore the details contained in supporting sentences. Try to answer the five Ws: Who, What, Where, When, Why. 6.2 Scanning Scanning is reading for specific information. It is useful when we want to locate quickly specific piece of information within a reading material without necessarily reading through the whole material. In scanning we know what we are looking for, that’s why we don’t need to pay attention to other information. Let your eyes move quickly over the text to spot key words and phrases, when pupils read a text to look for an answer to a question posed by their teacher, they are scanning. Scanning saves you time and can be combined with skimming to maximize comprehension. For example, searching through a telephone directory or reading an advertisement are two good examples of scanning techniques. Use: Run your eyes down the page, look for bold-face point, italics, or any other terms which stand out from the surrounding text. Focus on numbers, places, names, questions, and notes in margins. Focus on finding the answer. 4 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01)  6.3 Deep study reading Deep study reading is reading to learn. It is also called in-depth reading, detailed reading, detail reading, and careful reading. It’s useful when want to extract accurate information, make connections, understand concepts and meanings, consider implications, and evaluate arguments. The reader attempts to handle detailed information in the text which can be complex and difficult to comprehend such as school/college subjects. That is why the reading rate (speed) seems to be slower than in skimming or scanning, and readers often require reading. to connect information with background knowledge. Sometimes, reading the material aloud is quite beneficial to achieve in-depth understanding. Many researchers argue that reading deeply requires a strategic approach and time to cogitate (reflect/ think deeply about something). Reading strategies, e.g., SQ3R, promote deeper and more thoughtful understanding because they think about thinking with reading flexibly. Use: Survey contents, titles, and chapters. Analyze the title (what you already know and what’s the purpose of the text) read the text word for word, do not skip words, and use the dictionary to explain new words. Take notes, review what you learned, read aloud your notes, and test your understanding. 6.4 Extensive reading Extensive reading is reading as much material as possible for pleasure and general language development. It involves reading silently, quickly, and at one’s pace/speed. This type of reading is useful for improving student’s word recognition, fluency, speed and inference skills. (reading longer texts often for pleasure and overall understanding). Within extensive reading, students choose what they read according to their level and interests, read (generally out of class) independently of a teacher, skip whole parts or just stop reading whenever they consider the material not interesting or too difficult. In addition, students don’t need to use their dictionaries, because they focus on the meaning (comprehension of the main topic), and are not required to do any tasks after reading. However, teachers can assign activities to students to check their understanding such as interviewing ( reading versus speaking), reporting (reading versus writing) summarising, retelling parts of the text, book projects, etc. Generally, extensive reading aims at building reader confidence enjoyment, and general understanding. In short, extensive reading is about “learning to read.” It can be introduced to all kinds of EFL classes. 6.5 Intensive reading Intensive reading (or narrow reading) is reading a limited piece of writing slowly and slightly with specific learning aims and tasks. It may involve students reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content and 5 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01) grammatical structures repeat themselves and students may get opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. The more familiar the reader is with the text, the more comprehension is promoted. Intensive readers must read carefully to remember the details and understand all the words and meaning of the text, are supposed to use dictionaries and employ various reading styles such as skimming and scanning. Intensive reading is generally directed by the teacher whose rule is an organiser, observer, feedback provider, and prompter. It is also a classroom-based activity wherein students focus on linguistic and semantic details. Intensive reading aims at building more language knowledge than practising the skill of reading. Intensive reading is about “reading to learn.” It is carried out in very short texts (about 500 words long) chosen by the teacher considering the level of difficulty. Activities may include finding main ideas, making inferences, identifying words, answering questions, etc. 6.6 Browsing Browsing is reading for no specific goals. It involves taking a boarder view of the subject, which in turn provides you with a stronger base that can be developed through specific reading. We often browse magazines or newspapers just for fun. Still, browsing enables us to build up a sense of how languages fit together and to enrich our knowledge of various topics like culture, politics, sports etc. 7. Conclusion Reading is one of the major language skills that need constant improvement through the use of useful skills, styles and strategies. It affects other language skills and boosts comprehension and critical thinking. On that basis, students should strive to develop their reading techniques to enhance comprehension and ensure more effective communication inside or outside the university. Academic reading should not be seen as a passive activity, but an active process that leads to the development of learning. Reading for learning requires a conscious effort to make links, understand opinions, research and apply what students learn to their studies. 6 Lesson 05: Being an Effective Reader (Part01)  Hamma Lakhdar University of El-Oued Faculty Of Arts and Languages Department Of English Language Academic Year: 2023/2024 Semester: First Level: 2nd year Module: Study Skills Lesson: 6 Teacher: Chouchani ABIDI Med Being an Effective Reader (Reading Strategies) Outline : 1. Introduction 2. Definition of a Strategy 3. Reading Strategies 3.1. SQ3R 3.2. SQRW 3.3. REDW 4. Conclusion 1. Introduction Have you ever read a paragraph, a page, or even a chapter only to realize that, although you saw every word, you had no idea what you had read? Reading in foreign language is considered one of the most challenging and difficult tasks that most of EFL learners face. Due to the complexity of this skill, many students suffered from reading for their failure in the achievement of reading comprehension. When passively reading, it's possible to view the words without mentally processing them. Running our eyes over sentences does not mean we are thinking about them. Reading for comprehension and meaning requires an active approach that forces the reader to interact mindfully and kinesthetically with the text. We previously stated that reading is an active process of comprehending print and graphic materials; it is a mental process. It is a thinking process. Effective readers know that when they read, what they read is supposed to make sense. They monitor their understanding, and when they lose the meaning of what they are reading, they often unconsciously select and use a reading strategy that will help them reconnect with the meaning of the text. Reading strategies can be taught explicitly while students are learning subject-specific content through authentic reading tasks. Effective readers use strategies to understand what they read before, during, and after reading. 2. Definition of a Strategy This term has various definitions. Here are some of them:In a broad sense, a strategy refers to an established, habitual, logical or prescribed practice or systematic process of achieving certain ends in an ordered sequence of steps. In education, it means a systematic plan, consciously adapted and monitored, 1 Lesson 06: Being an Effective Reader (Par2)  to improve one’s performance in learning. The use of a strategy is a deliberate, conscious, meta-cognitive act. However, when the strategy becomes effortless and automatic, it becomes a skill. 3. Reading Strategies As students progress through university, they are asked to read increasingly complex informational and graphical texts in their courses. The ability to understand and use the information in these texts is key to a student’s success in learning. Successful students have a repertoire of strategies to draw upon and know how to use them in different contexts. There are a number of excellent active reading strategies to keep readers engaged and interacting with meaning as they read. Reading strategies can help students access information that is not explicitly stated. They are beneficial for texts that have complex ideas and vocabulary Below is an explanation of three major reading strategies: SQ3R, SQRW, and REDW. 3.1 SQ3R SQ3R is a popular reading/study formula designed to help process and increase retention of written information and strengthen students’ reading muscles. One of its greatest benefits is that it helps students understand more of what they are reading, especially if they are reading material for the first time. This strategy is very useful when reading textbooks or chapters of books. It is named for its five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review. Survey: Before you start reading, glance through (or survey) the passage to identify the subject matter, the point of view, and the overall purpose of the passage. In very few minutes, try to: Survey the chapter title, headings and subheadings, captions under pictures, charts, graphs or maps, diagrams, Skim the first sentence of every paragraph, the introductory and concluding paragraphs, chapter objectives, and summary (if available), Survey the questions, too! Put marks in the margins of the passage if you see questions that mention “paragraph 3” or “lines 11-18”, for example, Circle weird names and big words in the questions to increase the chances that you will remember that the word or idea is important when you come across it in the passage. Notice reading aids such as italics, boldface print, underlining, etc. Question: While you are surveying, come up with a couple of questions about the passage to get more excited about what you are about to read. Even in less than the time devoted to the first stage, do the following: Turn the titles, headings, and subheadings into questions, Read the questions at the end of each chapter or after each subheading, Ask yourself some questions like: What did the teacher say about this chapter or subject? What do I already know about this topic? What is this passage about? Why does this passage exist? What question is this passage trying to answer? 2 Lesson 06: Being an Effective Reader (Par2)  Note: You can write down these questions for consideration Read (R1): Start reading the passage actively. Use the following tips: Read each section with your questions in mind looking for answers. Notice underlined, italicised, bold-printed words, phrases or sentences, Study graphic aids (graphs, charts, tables, diagrams, drawings, etc.,) Reread captions under pictures or photos, Underline or highlight key words and major claims, Reduce your reading speed for difficult passages, Read aloud some passages for better engagement, Stop and reread difficult items several times, Read only one section at a time, Make quick notes in the margins of the passage using these keys: Numbers for lists, enumerations and sequences, Asterisks for individual main points, Vertical lines for the main points of several lines, Recall phrases to condense major points and details, Abbreviation “Def” for definitions, Recite (R2): This is the most important part of effective reading. The second "R" stands for recite– in your own words. After you read each paragraph, say back to yourself what it was about using your own words. Use these tips: Ask yourself questions about what you have just read, Underline and highlight important words you have just read, Take notes from the text and write them in your own words, Summarise in your own words what you read for better encoding and retrieval, Write a summary sentence for each paragraph, Use recall cues in margins, Recite the answers loud to yourself, Review (R3): It is important to review the material you read to understand and remember it. Once you reach the end of the passage, say back to yourself what the point of the whole passage is–again, using your own words. The following cues are useful: Reread each main heading, Review he underlined and highlighted material, In the margins, write questions for those notes you have highlighted or underlined, Go back over the questions you created for every heading. Using your reading notes, see if you can still answer them, If not, look back and refresh your memory and then continue, Page through your notes to re-acquaint yourself with the main points, Ask yourself questions about the notes and answer them orally from memory, Develop mnemonic devices for your notes to remember them (acronyms, flash cards, concept maps, mind maps, tree diagrams, 3 Lesson 06: Being an Effective Reader (Par2)  Periodically, review your notes to avoid cramming during tests. 3.2 SQRW SQRW is a four-step strategy for reading and taking notes from chapters in a textbook. Each letter stands for one step in the strategy. Using SQRW will help you to understand what you read and to prepare a written record of what you learned. The written record will be valuable when you have to participate in a class discussion and again when you study for a test. Read to learn what to do for each step in SQRW. Survey: surveying brings to mind what you already know about the topic of a chapter and prepares you to learn more. To survey a chapter, read the title, introduction, headings, and the summary or conclusion. Also, examine all visuals such as pictures, tables, maps, and/or graphs and read the caption that goes with each. By surveying a chapter, you will quickly learn what the chapter is about. Question: you need to have questions in your mind as you read. Questions give you a purpose for reading and help you stay focused on the reading assignment. Form questions by changing each chapter heading into a question. Use the words who, what, when, where, why, or how to form questions. For example, for the heading "Uses of Electricity" in a chapter about how science improves lives, you might form the question "What are some uses of electricity?" If a heading is stated as a question, use that question. When a heading contains more than one idea, form a question for each idea. Do not form questions for the Introduction, Summary, or Conclusion. Read: Read the information that follows each heading to find the answer to each question you formed. As you do this, you may decide you need to change a question or turn it into several questions to be answered. Stay focused and flexible so you can gather as much information as you need to answer each question. Write: Write each question and its answer in your notebook. Reread each of your written answers to be sure each answer is legible and contains all the important information needed to answer the question. As you practice using SQRW, you will find you learn more and have good study notes to use to prepare for class participation and tests. 3.3 REDW REDW is a good strategy to use to find the main idea in each paragraph of a reading assignment. Using this strategy will help you comprehend the information contained in your assignment. Each of the letters in REDW stands for a step in the strategy. Read: The entire paragraph to get an idea of what the paragraph is about. You may find it helpful to whisper the words as you read or to form a picture in your mind of what you are reading. Once you have a general idea of what the paragraph is about, go on to the next step. 4 Lesson 06: Being an Effective Reader (Par2)  Examine: Each sentence in the paragraph to identify the important words that tell what the sentence is about. Ignore the words that are not needed to tell what the sentence is about. If you are allowed to, draw a line through the words to be ignored. For each sentence, write on a sheet of paper the words that tell what the sentence is about. Decide: Reread the words you wrote for each sentence in the paragraph. Decide which sentence contains the words you wrote that best describe the main idea of the paragraph. These words are the main idea of the paragraph. The sentence that contains these words is the topic sentence. The other words you wrote are the supporting details for the main idea. Write: The main idea for each paragraph in your notebook. This will provide you with a written record of the most important ideas you learned. This written record will be helpful if you have to take a test that covers the reading assignment. Use REDW strategy to help you understand the information in your reading assignments. 4. Conclusion The reading strategies explained beforehand are meant to help students engage with the reading materials more effectively and maximise understanding. Mastery of such strategies requires constant practice and rehearsal. Therefore, students need to go through these strategies and try them when they deal with different types of texts, starting from the purpose of reading set by the task they are engaged in. Academic reading is not a passive activity; it necessitates a deliberate and active interaction with the material. To thoroughly absorb and comprehend the written material, you must read actively by taking actions to comprehend it before, during, and after reading it completely. 5 Lesson 06: Being an Effective Reader (Par2)