Exam 2 Study Guide - PSYCH 328 PDF

**Textbook:  ** **Module 4** 1. Define and exemplify behavioral definition. - **behavioral definition** is a precise, objective, unambiguous description of the target behavior or a competing behavior, stated in a way that makes it measurable **Exemplify:** If the goal is to increa...

**Textbook:  ** **Module 4** 1. Define and exemplify behavioral definition. - **behavioral definition** is a precise, objective, unambiguous description of the target behavior or a competing behavior, stated in a way that makes it measurable **Exemplify:** If the goal is to increase exercise, a behavioral definition might be: **1 behavior = Going to the gym and using a cardio machine (e.g., elliptical, treadmill, stationary bike) for 20 minutes.** 2. Practice writing behavioral definitions for some of the behaviors. - Eating more fruits -- 1 behavior = eating a single piece of fruit - Pleasure reading -- 1 behavior = reading 5 pages of a novel - Using relaxation techniques -- 1 behavior = meditating for 10 minutes - Doing household chores -- 1 behavior = cleaning one room in my apartment (kitchen, bathroom, living room, or bedroom) - Quitting smoking -- 1 behavior = smoking 1 cigarette 3. Explain how a behavior definition is like an operational definition. - A **behavioral definition** is like an **operational definition** in that both provide clear, precise, and measurable descriptions to ensure consistency in observation and data collection. In psychology and research, [an **operational definition** refers to how a variable (such as depression, stress, or happiness) is specifically measured or observed in a study.] 4. Clarify the variables in a behavior medication plan -- IV and DV. - The target behavior is what you want to change **(the DV)** and the behavioral definition says how you will measure it **(remember, the DV is the variable that is measured, IV)** 5. Explain the economics of motivated behavior and how they relate to behavioral change. - Costs of Motivated Behavior - Response Costs - Time - Physical energy: Having enough energy/glucose so you can burn the calories\ necessary to engage in motivated behavior - Psychological energy - Opportunity costs 6. Clarify the importance of grit for behavior modification. - Grit: To achieve difficult goals, we need more than just talent and opportunity, but the ability to focus and persevere over time. 7. Define goal. - A **goal** is an objective or result we desire that clearly indicates how our time and physical and psychological energy will be spent. 8. Outline features of goals - They can be large in scope. - Goals can be complex and take planning to achieve. - Goals are more likely to be completed when they are linked to incentives. - And finally, you can have more than one goal at a time. 9. Describe properties of goals and how they relate to behavior modification. - **Goal difficulty**: The more difficult the goal, the more rewarding it is when we achieve it. - **Goal Rank:** Goals can be ranked in order of importance and higher-level goals have more value to us when achieved. - **Specificity of a goal:** The more specific the goal, the better our planning can be, and the more likely that we will achieve the goal. - **Goal commitment:** Goal *commitment* is key and if you want to make it more likely that you will achieve your goal, publicly announce the goal (Salancik, 1977). Commitment tends to be higher when the goal is more difficult too. - **Goal failure:** If you *fail* at a goal, you can either try again, quit and move on, reduce the level of the goal, or revise the goal. 10. Differentiate proximal and distal goals. - **Distal** **goals** are far off in the future whereas **proximal** are nearer in time. 11. Exemplify how proximal and distal goals are used in behavior modification (this involves integrating all dimensions being changed in). - Proximal goals are short-term and help you achieve the long-term, distal goals. In behavior modification, both types are used to progressively change behaviors. For example, if your distal goal is to run 60 minutes continuously three times a week, you can break it down into proximal goals like running for 15 minutes twice a week, then 30 minutes three times a week, and so on. As you achieve each proximal goal, you move closer to the final goal, gradually adjusting your frequency and duration. 12. Clarify how a criterion is used to move from one goal to the next. - A criterion defines the specific requirement that must be met to move from one goal to the next. - For example, if the first goal is to run for 15 minutes twice a week, the criterion to advance might be successfully completing this for two consecutive weeks. The criterion ensures that the individual is ready to take on the next challenge without moving too fast or too slow. 13. Explain how to count behaviors in your goals using the behavioral definition. (You will be asked to create goals and count behaviors on the exam. Practice doing this if you are confused). - Behavioral definitions help in counting how many times the behavior occurs, ensuring consistency. - For instance, if the behavioral definition for reading is 1 behavior = reading 5 pages, and your goal is to read 30 pages in one night, then you perform 6 behaviors (30 pages ÷ 5 pages per behavior). The number of behaviors is counted based on the definition to track progress toward your goal. For each proximal goal, you can track the increase in behavior counts, helping you assess whether you\'ve met the defined criterion. **Module 5** 14. Define self-monitoring. - Self-monitoring refers to the process of measuring and recording one\'s own behavior. It involves the individual observing and tracking their own actions or habits, which is commonly used in self-management or self-modification. 15. Clarify what the observation period is. - The observation period is the specific time frame during which behavior is measured or recorded. It is a clearly defined time when the behavior is likely to occur, allowing for systematic observation. 16. Differentiate between a natural setting and an analogue setting. - A natural setting refers to an environment where the behavior typically occurs in the person\'s daily routine, such as home, school, or work. In contrast, - an analogue setting is a controlled environment that is not part of the individual\'s normal routine, often used for experimental or laboratory-based observations. 17. Describe three methods of recording. 1. **Continuous Recording:**\ In continuous recording, the individual is observed throughout the entire observation period, and all occurrences of the behavior are recorded. This method allows for tracking: - **Frequency:** The rate of how often the behavior occurs, reported as the number of responses per minute. - **Duration:** The total time the behavior takes from start to finish. - **Intensity:** Rated on a scale, such as 1 (low) to 5 (high), which helps measure the impact or severity of the behavior. - **Latency:** How long it takes the person to start or stop a behavior after being prompted. A variation called real-time recording allows for precise timing of when the behavior starts and ends, helping calculate both frequency and duration. 2\. **Product or Outcome Recording:**\ This method involves assessing a tangible result or outcome of a behavior, such as examining homework assignments to see if a student has improved in long division. It is an indirect method where the observer does not need to be present during the behavior. The benefit is that you can examine many types of behaviors, but the limitation is uncertainty about who completed the work or if it was done without outside help. 3\. **Interval Recording:**\ In interval recording, the observation period is divided into smaller time intervals. The behavior is recorded based on whether it occurs during the entire interval (**whole interval recording**) or during any part of the interval (**partial interval recording**). This method is useful when the observer is not concerned with the exact frequency or duration of the behavior. An alternative approach is **time sample recording,** where observations are made for part of each interval, and there are gaps in between observation periods. This method is discontinuous and can be useful when more than one behavior is being observed or when constant observation isn\'t necessary. 18. Clarify the use of the ABC chart in data collection. An ABC chart is used in data collection to systematically record the **Antecedents**, **Behavior**, and **Consequences** surrounding an individual\'s behavior. This structured diary helps identify what environmental or internal events (antecedents) led to the occurrence of a behavior, the specific form of the behavior, and what happened afterward (the consequences). By documenting these details, it becomes possible to better understand the causes of the behavior and the factors that influence its continuation or change. - **Antecedents** are external or internal stimuli that trigger the behavior, such as events, thoughts, or feelings. - **Behavior** refers to the observable or internal actions (what was done, said, or thought). - **Consequences** include any responses or outcomes following the behavior, whether delivered by others or self-administered. ABC charts help track patterns over time and allow for the identification of specific antecedents and consequences that influence both desired and problem behaviors, assisting in behavior modification planning. 19. Outline a few ways to make recording easier.  **Keep recording instruments accessible:** Always have your tools (like a phone, app, notebook) with you when you\'re likely to perform the behavior you\'re tracking.  **Record immediately:** Record the behavior as it happens, so the information is accurate and doesn\'t rely on memory.  **Create reminders:** Use post-it notes or phone notifications to remind yourself to record your behavior.  **Be honest in your recordings:** Accurately record all relevant behaviors, even if the data doesn\'t reflect your goals.  **Review your data regularly:** Analyze your ABC charts and summary tables to identify patterns and adjust your plan accordingly. 20. Define reactivity. - Reactivity refers to a change in behavior that occurs simply because the behavior is being recorded or monitored. This can impact the accuracy of baseline data because individuals may alter their actions knowing they are being observed. 21. Define interobserver agreement. Clarify what the minimum amount is. - Interobserver agreement, also called interrater reliability, occurs when two independent observers record the same behavior and agree on its occurrence. A high percentage of agreement indicates consistency in observation. Researchers typically aim for at least 90% agreement, with 80% being the minimum acceptable level. 22. Describe the importance of the baseline phase. The baseline phase is critical because it provides a clear understanding of how frequently, intensely, or consistently a behavior occurs before any intervention or behavior change strategy is applied. During this phase, data is collected without attempting to change the behavior, helping identify the natural patterns of the behavior. It is essential for the following reasons: - **Establishing a comparison point:** The data collected during the baseline phase is used to compare the behavior before and after applying treatment strategies. - **Identifying patterns:** By observing the behavior over time, a clear pattern can emerge, which helps in understanding why the desired behavior isn't occurring or why problem behaviors persist. - **Functional assessment:** The baseline data helps in determining the underlying causes or triggers of the behavior, guiding the development of an effective behavior modification plan. This phase usually lasts a few days or until consistent patterns in the behavior become evident. 23. Define functional assessment. - A functional assessment is a process where antecedents and consequences of a behavior are closely examined to understand the factors influencing its occurrence or nonoccurrence. This deeper analysis helps in designing an effective behavior modification plan by reviewing data collected during the baseline phase. 24. Outline what information is gained from a functional assessment. - A functional assessment provides the following key information: - The Behavior: A detailed breakdown of the target behavior, including sub-behaviors in the case of a problem behavior. - The Antecedents: The environmental stimuli or internal thoughts/feelings that predict the behavior. - The Consequences: Events that maintain or reinforce the behavior, which can help identify motivators. - Previous Interventions: Information about prior attempts to change the behavior and their success or failure, offering insights into what might work in the current plan. 25. Differentiate indirect and direct assessment. - **Indirect assessment (informant methods):** Involves interviews, checklists, questionnaires, or rating scales to gather information from the individual or others who know them. It is quick but relies on memory, which can lead to inaccuracies. - **Direct assessment:** Involves real-time observation and recording of the behavior, along with its antecedents and consequences. This method is more accurate as it doesn't rely on recall but takes more time and effort. 26. Describe functional analysis. - **Functional analysis** is a process that tests the hypothesized antecedents and consequences of a behavior by presenting different stimuli or consequences and observing their effects on the behavior. It establishes a functional relationship between these factors and the behavior but requires skilled personnel, time, and often institutional approval. This method is more precise than indirect or direct assessments. 27. Clarify when each method will be needed. - Indirect assessment: This method is useful at the beginning of the functional assessment process to quickly gather general information about the behavior. It is typically the first step when you need to develop an initial hypothesis about the behavior based on interviews, checklists, or questionnaires. It is ideal when time is limited, or access to the person is restricted. - - Direct assessment: After an initial hypothesis is formed from indirect assessment, direct observation is needed to provide more accurate, real-time data. It helps confirm or refine the hypothesis. This method is necessary when you require a precise understanding of how the behavior unfolds in real-life situations without relying on memory. - Functional analysis: This method is used when indirect and direct assessments have been completed and a hypothesis about the behavior\'s antecedents and consequences needs to be tested. It is necessary when establishing a functional relationship between the stimuli or consequences and the behavior is crucial, especially for more complex behaviors or situations that require detailed intervention plans. It is also used when previous methods haven't provided enough clarity to proceed with treatment confidently. 28. Define temptation. - Temptation refers to anything or anyone that may lead you to engage in undesired or problem behavior instead of making the desired or target behavior. Temptations can take various forms, such as people, objects, situations, or places that encourage the problematic behavior. 29. Explain how people and things can be temptations. -  **People as temptations:** Friends or acquaintances may unintentionally tempt you into undesirable behavior. For instance, a friend might invite you to engage in unhealthy activities, such as late-night fast food runs, which disrupt your goal of maintaining a healthy diet. -  **Things as temptations:** Objects or items in your environment may also serve as temptations. For example, seeing candy bars in the pantry may encourage you to indulge in unhealthy snacking, undermining your weight loss plan. 30. Clarify the significance of situations and places and how they might lead you to engage in the undesired behavior. -  **Situations as temptations:** Certain activities or routines might tempt you to engage in problem behaviors. For example, watching TV may be associated with eating unhealthy snacks, leading to undesirable eating habits. -  **Places as temptations:** Physical locations, such as restaurants or sports stadiums, may encourage problem behavior. For instance, you might only consume unhealthy food when at a stadium or specific restaurant, where the environment prompts you to engage in these behaviors. 31. Propose ways to avoid giving in to temptations. -  **Ask for support:** Communicate with friends and ask them not to tempt you. Seek their encouragement and involve them in your behavior modification plan. -  **Use self-instructions:** Rely on positive affirmations or self-reminders of your goals to strengthen your resolve during moments of temptation. -  **Identify self-talk:** Recognize any justifications (e.g., \"just this one time\") you may use when giving in and challenge this mindset to prevent future slips. -  **Avoid triggering situations/places:** Stay away from environments where you know you will be tempted or alter these situations. For example, if eating out with friends disrupts your diet, eat something healthy beforehand to avoid giving in. 32. Clarify what happens when we make a behavior (the framework -- S-R-C). Understand on what the types of conditioning operate here. - When we make a behavior, it follows the framework of **Stimulus-Response-Consequence (S-R-C)**: - **Stimulus (S):** The antecedent, or trigger, that occurs before the behavior. - **Response (R):** The behavior itself, which is the reaction to the stimulus. - **Consequence (C):** The outcome that follows the behavior. If the consequence is favorable, the behavior is more likely to be repeated, while an unfavorable consequence reduces the likelihood of repetition. - This process of shaping behavior based on its consequences is known as **operant conditioning**, a type of associative learning. Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences following a behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future. 33. Define operant conditioning. - Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning where the likelihood of a behavior occurring depends on the consequences that follow it. If a behavior is followed by a favorable consequence, it becomes more likely to occur in the future, whereas an unfavorable consequence decreases its likelihood. 34. Remember whose groundbreaking work operant conditioning is based on. - Operant conditioning is based on the groundbreaking work of **B.F. Skinner**, who expanded on earlier ideas of learning and behavior by focusing on how rewards and punishments shape actions. Skinner's experiments with animals, such as rats and pigeons, laid the foundation for modern behavioral psychology. 35. Contrast reinforcement and punishment. - Reinforcement and punishment are both consequences that affect behavior, but they operate in opposite ways: - Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future. It can be positive reinforcement, where something good is added (e.g., receiving praise for good performance), or negative reinforcement, where something bad is removed (e.g., taking pain medication to alleviate a headache). - Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future. It can be positive punishment, where something bad is added (e.g., receiving a slap for talking back), or negative punishment, where something good is removed (e.g., losing privileges for being late). 36. Clarify what positive and negative mean. In the context of operant conditioning: - **Positive** refers to adding or giving something (which can be good or bad) as a consequence of a behavior. For instance, giving a treat for good behavior is positive reinforcement, while administering a slap for bad behavior is positive punishment. - **Negative** refers to taking away or removing something (which can also be good or bad) as a consequence. For example, taking away chores for good behavior is negative reinforcement, while removing a privilege for misbehavior is negative punishment. 37. Outline the four contingencies of behavior. The four contingencies of behavior in operant conditioning are: 1. **Positive Reinforcement (PR):** Adding a favorable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. 2. **Negative Reinforcement (NR):** Removing an unfavorable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. 3. **Positive Punishment (PP):** Adding an unfavorable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. 4. **Negative Punishment (NP):** Removing a favorable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. 38. Distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary Reinforcers: These are inherently reinforcing and do not require learning. They satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and shelter. For example, food is a primary reinforcer because it directly satisfies hunger. Secondary Reinforcers: These require learning and are not inherently reinforcing. They gain their reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers. Examples include money, praise, and rewards, which become valuable because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. 39. List and describe the five factors on the effectiveness of reinforcers. Immediacy: The quicker a reinforcer or punisher is delivered after a response, the more effective it is. Immediate consequences help establish a clear connection between behavior and outcome. Contingency: The consistency of the relationship between behavior and consequence. A clear and direct relationship strengthens the effectiveness of reinforcement or punishment. Magnitude: The intensity or size of the reinforcer or punisher. More substantial consequences tend to have a greater effect on behavior. Motivating Operations: These can either be establishing operations (making a reinforcer more potent) or abolishing operations (making a reinforcer less potent). They influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment based on situational factors. Individual Differences: People respond differently to reinforcers and punishers. What is reinforcing for one person may not be reinforcing for another, highlighting the need to tailor behavior modification strategies to individual preferences. 40. Contrast continuous and partial/intermittent reinforcement. Continuous Reinforcement: This schedule provides reinforcement every time the desired behavior occurs. For example, if a child receives a cookie every time they clean their room, that's continuous reinforcement. It's effective for establishing new behaviors because the immediate feedback reinforces the behavior consistently. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: In this schedule, reinforcement is given only some of the time the behavior occurs. This method is often more resistant to extinction because the individual does not expect reinforcement after every behavior. For instance, if a person earns a bonus after completing a certain number of sales (not every sale), this exemplifies partial reinforcement. Intermittent reinforcement can make behaviors more resilient over time. 41. List the four main reinforcement schedules and exemplify each. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses. Example: A teacher gives a student an extra credit point after they correctly answer every twenty problems on a test (FR20). Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses, which changes each time. Example: A slot machine pays out after an unpredictable number of lever pulls, reinforcing behavior in a way that keeps players engaged. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed. Example: A worker receives a paycheck every two weeks, reinforcing their continued effort during that time period. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: Definition: Reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time have passed. Example: Checking your email at random times and receiving messages occasionally reinforces the behavior of checking your email. The timing is unpredictable, which keeps the behavior consistent. These reinforcement schedules play a crucial role in shaping and maintaining desired behaviors, each with different effects on learning and response rates. 42. Define extinction. - Extinction is the process by which a previously reinforced behavior decreases in frequency and eventually stops when the reinforcement is no longer provided. It occurs when the expected reinforcer is not delivered, leading to a weakening of the associated behavior. 43. Clarify which type of reinforcement extinguishes quicker. - Continuous reinforcement extinguishes quicker than partial (intermittent) reinforcement. When a behavior is reinforced continuously, the absence of reinforcement leads to an immediate cessation of that behavior. In contrast, with partial reinforcement, individuals may continue to respond for a while, believing that the reinforcement schedule has simply changed. 44. Define extinction burst. - An extinction burst is a temporary increase in the frequency, duration, or intensity of a behavior when extinction first occurs. This reaction often involves frustration and may lead to aggressive behaviors as the individual attempts to elicit the previously expected reinforcement. 45. Define spontaneous recovery. - Spontaneous recovery refers to the phenomenon where a previously extinguished behavior re-emerges after a period without reinforcement. When the individual or animal attempts the behavior again, there are two possible outcomes: the behavior may not be reinforced (continuing extinction), or the behavior may be reinforced, leading to its re-emergence. 46. Describe how respondent behaviors work. - Respondent behaviors are automatic responses to specific stimuli, which occur without conscious thought. They are controlled by antecedent stimuli, meaning that certain stimuli trigger reflexive behaviors. For example, salivating in response to food is a reflexive behavior that occurs naturally without any prior learning. Respondent conditioning involves learning associations between neutral stimuli and unconditioned stimuli, leading to conditioned responses. 47. Describe Pavlov's classic experiment, defining any key terms. - Pavlov\'s classic experiment demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning using dogs. He observed that dogs would salivate not only at the sight of food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS) but also in response to other stimuli, such as the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus, NS), which had not been previously associated with food. - **Key Terms:** - **Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):** A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning (e.g., food). - **Unconditioned Response (UCR):** The automatic response to the UCS (e.g., salivation). - **Neutral Stimulus (NS):** A stimulus that initially elicits no response (e.g., bell). - **Conditioned Stimulus (CS):** The NS after it has been paired with the UCS, causing a learned response (e.g., bell after conditioning). - **Conditioned Response (CR):** The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell). - The experiment consisted of three phases: - **Preconditioning:** The dog salivates to the food (UCS → UCR), but does not salivate to the bell (NS). - **Conditioning:** The bell (NS) is paired repeatedly with food (UCS), leading to salivation (UCR). - **Postconditioning:** The bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting salivation (CR) on its own. 48. Explain how fears are both learned and unlearned in respondent conditioning. Fears can be learned through classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus (like a rat) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces fear (like a loud noise). This was demonstrated in the \"Little Albert\" experiment by Watson and Rayner, where a child learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud, frightening sound. Conversely, fears can be unlearned through processes such as: - **Counterconditioning:** Pairing the feared stimulus with a positive experience (e.g., gradually introducing the child to a rabbit while providing sweets). - **Flooding:** Exposing the individual to the feared stimulus in a controlled setting without any negative consequences, allowing them to realize that the fear is unwarranted. 49. Name the four principles discussed in operant conditioning and explain how they relate to respondent conditioning too. The four principles discussed in operant conditioning are also applicable to respondent conditioning: 1. **Generalization:** - In respondent conditioning, this occurs when a response is elicited by similar stimuli (e.g., salivation in response to a bell and a whistle). 2. **Discrimination:** - This involves the ability to differentiate between stimuli, responding only to the specific CS (e.g., salivation only to the sound of a specific bell). 3. **Extinction:** - Extinction occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS, leading to a decrease in the CR (e.g., the dog stops salivating when the bell rings without food). 4. **Spontaneous Recovery:** - This is the re-emergence of the CR after a period of extinction, where the CS once again elicits the response (e.g., the dog salivates at the sound of the bell after a time without reinforcement). These principles show how behaviors can be shaped and modified through both operant and respondent conditioning, highlighting the similarities between the two learning processes. 50. Differentiate observational and enactive learning.  **Observational Learning:** - **Definition:** Learning by watching others without firsthand experience. - **Mechanism:** The learner observes a model (someone demonstrating a behavior) and may adopt that behavior based on the outcomes they observe. Positive reinforcement received by the model increases the likelihood that the observer will imitate the behavior, while negative consequences may discourage imitation. - **Example:** Watching a parent bag groceries and adopting that technique or observing a peer get into trouble and deciding to avoid similar behavior.  **Enactive Learning:** - **Definition:** Learning through direct experience or doing. - **Mechanism:** The learner engages in a behavior and learns from the consequences of their actions, allowing for personal trial and error. - **Example:** Practicing a math problem and learning how to solve it through mistakes and corrections.