Study Guide: U.S. Foreign Policy PDF

Key Concepts and Arguments 1. Hegemony The pursuit of hegemony has been central to U.S. foreign policy, especially post-World War II. The U.S. aimed to establish itself as a dominant global power to promote stability, prevent the spread of communism, and protect its economic in...

Key Concepts and Arguments 1. Hegemony The pursuit of hegemony has been central to U.S. foreign policy, especially post-World War II. The U.S. aimed to establish itself as a dominant global power to promote stability, prevent the spread of communism, and protect its economic interests. This led to the establishment of international institutions like the United Nations, NATO, and later policies like containment during the Cold War. Proponents argue that U.S. hegemony promotes a liberal world order, global stability, and economic growth. Critics, however, see it as imperialistic, leading to unnecessary wars, military interventions, and resentment from other nations. 2. Economic Autarky Economic autarky refers to a policy of self-sufficiency, minimizing reliance on foreign imports. The U.S. initially followed isolationist policies in the early 20th century, which emphasized economic independence. However, after World War II, it shifted toward international trade and globalization, establishing itself as a global economic leader. The shift away from autarky allowed the U.S. to build alliances and expand markets but also made it vulnerable to global economic fluctuations and resource dependencies. 3. National Identity and Core Values (Leffler) Leffler argues that American foreign policy has been shaped by a sense of national identity based on ideals like democracy, freedom, and capitalism. These values drive interventions abroad, as seen in Cold War policies that aimed to prevent communism. Debates over national values influence contemporary policies on issues like immigration, human rights, and democracy promotion. Critics argue that these ideals can lead to interventionist policies that may ignore the sovereignty and cultural differences of other nations. 4. Gender Analysis (McEnaney) McEnaney’s gender analysis explores how masculinity and gender expectations have shaped U.S. foreign policy decisions, with policymakers often framing military action as a measure of strength and national pride. A gendered perspective reveals biases in foreign policy narratives, such as the association of power with masculinity, which can lead to aggressive policies. Recognizing these biases could shift policies towards more inclusive and cooperative approaches. 5. Historic Examples of Racism in American Foreign Policy (Krenn) Krenn highlights examples of racial bias in U.S. foreign policy, such as the justification for imperialism in Latin America and Asia, where non-white nations were seen as “uncivilized” and in need of guidance from the West. Racism has historically affected diplomatic relations and contributed to a legacy of distrust, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. This legacy still impacts modern U.S. relations with former colonies and developing nations. 6. The “Myth” of America The “myth” of America refers to the idealized vision of the U.S. as a land of freedom, opportunity, and moral authority. This myth has justified interventions abroad, portraying the U.S. as a “city on a hill” meant to spread democracy and protect freedom worldwide. This myth has been challenged by events where U.S. actions contradicted these ideals, such as the Vietnam War, which led to disillusionment and criticism of American foreign policy as hypocritical. Specific Policies and Events 1. The Fourteen Points Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points outlined a vision for world peace and included principles like self-determination, free trade, and the establishment of a League of Nations. Wilson hoped to prevent future conflicts through diplomacy and cooperative international governance. However, the Points were only partially successful. The Treaty of Versailles ignored many of Wilson’s principles, leading to a compromised peace that contributed to World War II. The U.S. Senate’s rejection of the League of Nations also weakened the vision of a unified international community. 2. American Neutrality The U.S. initially tried to stay neutral in both World Wars, influenced by isolationist sentiments and the belief that American interests were best served by avoiding European conflicts. In both cases, neutrality was eventually abandoned due to threats to U.S. interests, such as German U-boat attacks in WWI and the attack on Pearl Harbor in WWII. The shift reflected a growing recognition of the U.S.’s role on the global stage and the need to counter fascism and totalitarianism. 3. The Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine declared that the U.S. would support free peoples resisting subjugation, aimed primarily at containing Soviet influence. This policy marked the beginning of the Cold War and led to U.S. involvement in conflicts like the Greek Civil War. The doctrine influenced future intervention policies, justifying involvement in Korea, Vietnam, and various Latin American countries, often to prevent the spread of communism. 4. Henry Stimson’s Plan for Nuclear Weapons Henry Stimson, Secretary of War during WWII, advocated for controlling nuclear weapons through a mix of deterrence and diplomacy. He emphasized the ethical and strategic importance of regulating atomic energy and preventing an arms race. His approach influenced early U.S. nuclear policy, including the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission, although the U.S.-Soviet nuclear arms race still escalated throughout the Cold War. 5. The Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy aimed to prevent any one nation from monopolizing trade with China, allowing equal access to Chinese markets for all foreign powers. It was a way for the U.S. to expand trade without controlling territory directly. This policy reflected U.S. economic interests and strategic ambitions in Asia and influenced U.S.-China relations, leading to later conflicts and involvement in the Pacific. Essays and Theories  1. Progressive Internationalists vs. Conservative Internationalists (Knock Essay) Progressive internationalists, as described by Knock, believed in global cooperation, international law, and moral diplomacy, often advocating for institutions like the League of Nations. Conservative internationalists, however, prioritized national sovereignty and military power, viewing internationalism with skepticism. These two groups shaped early 20th-century U.S. foreign policy, with progressives influencing Wilson’s post-WWI agenda and conservatives driving isolationist policies that later dominated the interwar years. 2. Wilson’s “Wilsonian Moment” (Manela Essay) The “Wilsonian Moment” refers to the global impact of Wilson’s principles on self-determination, inspiring anti-colonial movements worldwide. Many colonial leaders interpreted Wilson’s rhetoric as support for independence, fostering early nationalist movements. However, Wilson’s support for self-determination was selective, focused primarily on Europe. His reluctance to apply these principles to colonies created disillusionment and set the stage for future conflicts in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. 3. Americanism (Costigliola Essay) Costigliola describes “Americanism” as a mix of values, including democracy, individualism, and economic freedom, which the U.S. has promoted abroad. Americanism has been a driving force in U.S. foreign policy, often motivating interventions to “defend” these values. The spread of Americanism has had both positive and negative consequences: it has promoted human rights and economic growth in some regions, but it has also led to cultural imperialism and backlash from societies that feel American values are imposed without regard for local customs. Here are study questions and their answers for each topic in your study guide. 1. American Neutrality  Question: Why did the United States initially pursue a policy of neutrality during the early 20th century, and what events led to its eventual involvement in WWI and WWII? Answer: American neutrality was rooted in isolationist beliefs and a desire to avoid the entanglements of European conflicts. However, events like unrestricted German submarine warfare during WWI and the attack on Pearl Harbor during WWII threatened U.S. interests directly, compelling the U.S. to abandon neutrality and join the wars to protect its national security. 2. The Fourteen Points Question: What were the main objectives of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, and how did they influence the post-war world? Answer: Wilson’s Fourteen Points sought to establish principles for lasting peace, including self-determination, open diplomacy, free trade, and the creation of the League of Nations. While they inspired hopes for peace, only some points were implemented in the Treaty of Versailles, and the U.S. Senate’s rejection of the League weakened its impact. 3. Isolationism Question: How did isolationism shape American foreign policy in the 1930s, and what events signaled a shift away from this stance? Answer: Isolationism in the 1930s led the U.S. to pass Neutrality Acts to avoid foreign conflicts. However, as global instability grew with the rise of Axis powers, the U.S. recognized the need to intervene, shifting towards a more active role in world affairs, culminating in entry into WWII after Pearl Harbor. 4. The Imperial Presidency Question: What is meant by the term “Imperial Presidency,” and how has this affected the role of the U.S. president in foreign policy? Answer: The “Imperial Presidency” refers to the expansion of presidential power, especially in foreign policy, often bypassing Congress. This allowed presidents to make swift decisions in crises but also raised concerns about checks and balances, as seen in decisions during the Cold War and post-9/11 era. 5. The Security Dilemma Question: How does the security dilemma explain the arms race during the Cold War? Answer: The security dilemma describes how one state’s efforts to increase security (e.g., building up arms) lead others to feel threatened, causing them to also build up arms. This cycle intensified the Cold War arms race, as both the U.S. and the Soviet Union amassed weapons to secure themselves, ironically increasing global insecurity. 6. The Long Telegram Question: What was the significance of George Kennan’s Long Telegram in shaping U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union? Answer: The Long Telegram argued that the Soviet Union was inherently expansionist and recommended a policy of containment. This perspective became the foundation of U.S. Cold War strategy, guiding efforts to counter Soviet influence worldwide through political, economic, and military means. 7. The Truman Doctrine Question: What was the Truman Doctrine, and why is it considered a turning point in American foreign policy? Answer: The Truman Doctrine committed the U.S. to supporting nations threatened by communism, marking a shift from isolationism to active interventionism. It established a precedent for American involvement in conflicts around the world to contain communism, influencing policies in Korea, Vietnam, and beyond. 8. The Open Door Policy  Question: How did the Open Door Policy shape U.S. relations with China, and what were its broader implications for American foreign policy? Answer: The Open Door Policy aimed to ensure equal trading rights in China, preventing colonial powers from monopolizing Chinese markets. It reflected U.S. support for free trade and expanded American influence in Asia, setting a precedent for economic diplomacy without direct colonial control. 9. Spheres of Influence Question: What role did spheres of influence play in the Cold War, and how did they affect global alliances? Answer: During the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union established spheres of influence, supporting allied governments and engaging in proxy wars to maintain their dominance. This division created rival alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) and shaped geopolitics by escalating regional conflicts into global ideological battles. 10. The Arsenal of Democracy Question: How did the concept of the “Arsenal of Democracy” define America’s role in WWII, and what actions did it lead to? Answer: Coined by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the “Arsenal of Democracy” referred to the U.S.’s commitment to supply Allied powers with war materials. This policy led to initiatives like Lend-Lease, enabling the U.S. to support the Allies while remaining officially neutral, positioning it as a key player in the fight against fascism. 11. Henry Stimson’s Plan for Nuclear Weapons Question: What approach did Henry Stimson advocate for nuclear weapons policy, and how did this shape early U.S. nuclear strategy? Answer: Henry Stimson advocated for international control and ethical considerations in nuclear policy. His approach influenced the creation of the Atomic Energy Commission and laid the groundwork for attempts to regulate nuclear arms, although the ensuing arms race between the U.S. and Soviet Union complicated these efforts. 12. Progressive Internationalists vs. Conservative Internationalists Question: How did Progressive Internationalists and Conservative Internationalists differ in their views on American foreign policy? Answer: Progressive Internationalists advocated for international cooperation and institutions like the League of Nations, while Conservative Internationalists prioritized national sovereignty and military strength. This divide influenced debates over U.S. involvement in global organizations and intervention in foreign conflicts. 13. Wilson’s “Wilsonian Moment” Question: What was the “Wilsonian Moment,” and how did it impact anti-colonial movements? Answer: The “Wilsonian Moment” refers to the global impact of Wilson’s principles of self-determination, inspiring anti-colonial movements. Many colonial territories interpreted his rhetoric as support for independence, although Wilson’s selective application limited its immediate impact, leading to later nationalist movements. 14. The Long Telegram and the Containment Policy Question: How did the ideas in the Long Telegram influence the creation of the U.S. containment policy? Answer: George Kennan’s Long Telegram argued that Soviet expansionism was rooted in ideology, requiring a policy of containment to prevent its spread. This view became the foundation of U.S. Cold War strategy, leading to political, economic, and military efforts to counter Soviet influence worldwide. 15. Dollar Diplomacy  Question: What was Dollar Diplomacy, and how did it reflect American foreign policy objectives? Answer: Dollar Diplomacy, primarily associated with President Taft, sought to use American economic power to secure influence in Latin America and East Asia. By encouraging investment and offering loans, the U.S. aimed to promote stability and open markets, reflecting a blend of economic interests and strategic goals. 16. Collective Memory Question: How does collective memory shape national identity and foreign policy? Answer: Collective memory refers to the shared remembrance of past events, shaping a nation’s identity and guiding its actions. In the U.S., collective memories of events like WWII and the Cold War foster a self-image as a defender of democracy, influencing policies that reflect this narrative in global affairs. 17. Historiography Question: Why is historiography important in the study of foreign policy, and how do historical perspectives affect policy analysis? Answer: Historiography examines how historical narratives and interpretations evolve, revealing biases and influences that shape foreign policy. By understanding historiographical debates, policymakers and scholars can recognize past errors, evaluate ideological biases, and create more informed approaches to current issues.