Sociology Study Guide PDF

1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION KEY DEFINITION CONCEPT Sociology the study of how societies are organized and how the organization of a society influences the behavior of people living in it Sociologic...

1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION KEY DEFINITION CONCEPT Sociology the study of how societies are organized and how the organization of a society influences the behavior of people living in it Sociological the study of how societies are organized and how the imagination organization of a society influences the behavior of people living in it Industrial The rapid development in the late 1700s and throughout the 1800s of Revolution manufacturing and industry, enabled by technological changes in machinery and power sources. Division of Economic arrangement in which workers, and even entire communities, Labor specialize in particular tasks or products, rather than producing everything they need themselves. Social The struggle between groups that have different interests and needs Conflict Economic How goods and resources are owned and distributed. Relationship s Class A group of people with similar positions in the economy and similar needs and interests (for example, workers). Labor The ability to do work. Wages Compensation for one's labor. Dialectic An ongoing struggle between opposites. Relational Sociological perspective that sees individuals as defined by their relationships to sociology others and to institutions such as the economy. Alienation Feeling of being disconnected from others, from work, and even from one’s own sense of humanity. Structure Social forces that impact individual behavior and are produced by that behavior. Solidarity Patterns of connections between people in a society. Mechanical Present in simple societies, where everyone is connected and the society is Solidarity highly cohesive. Organic Present in complex societies, where many members are not connected to each Solidarity other personally but depend on others due to the division of labor.  Integration How tied you are to others in your community. Regulation A society’s use of rules to monitor members’ actions Norms Expectations for behavior Anomie A lack of morals or social expectations to guide behavior. Methodologi Perspective that individuals should be at the center of any study of society. cal individualism Social Action Behaviors that produce social structures. Interpretive Perspective that focuses on the meaning that people make of their actions. understandin g Culture According to Weber, the values people hold that guide their behavior Hull House Founded by Jane Addams as a center for social reform to house, educate, and support poor women and their families Chicago Influential group of sociologists at the University of Chicago who engaged in School innovative research on cities and the patterns of how people live within them. Socially-enga Research that includes community members as researchers and data-gatherers ged and that focuses on their experiences. scholarship Physiological Symbolic rewards Whites receive from a system that values Whiteness. Wage Status Our social standing relative to others. Conspicuous Extravagant spending on items, services, and leisure to gain prestige and show consumption off one’s social status to others. Leisure class Individuals who are wealthy enough that they do not have to work for money. Pecuniary A competitive process of accumulating goods and services that we can display emulation as a sign of how well off we are. Veblen good A luxury item where demand increases as price goes up. Status A visible cue that indicates our status to others. Symbol CHAPTER 1 KEY IDEAS (from textbook, lecture, etc.) What is Sociology?  Group behavior is more than the individual decisions of each separate person. Group dynamics and the setting change the decision-making process for the individuals involved. Research on protest and crown behavior shows that people take cues from others, the response of authorities, and the setting. Sociology takes a broad view, looking at how individuals and the social environment influence each other. As people moved to cities they became more dependent on one another, since workers specialized in different tasks and could no longer produce all the items they needed to survive. Founders of Society Marx saw economic relationships as the key factor that determined how a society works. -He argued that all societies were based on social conflict between different classes. -Social conflict was mainly between capitalists and workers because capitalists want to pay lower wages in order to make more profit, while workers wanted higher wages and better working conditions. Durkheim emphasized the importance of solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is a very fragile society. Organic solidarity can make people feel isolated and without purpose. However, it makes societies more resilient, as they don’t depend on any one individual to survive. Integration and regulation are essential for any society to function An American Society Jane Addams combined the scientific study of poverty with social activism intended to improve the lives of the poor. Addams was one of the first researchers to focus on the lives of women and children. W.E.B. Du Bois emphasized that it was impossible to understand the development of American society without taking the role of slavery and race into account. He was the first sociologist to seriously consider the role of race relations. Thorstein Veblen focused on consumption as key to understanding modern society. Veblen believed the highest-status individuals in the U.S. were those in the leisure class, people rich enough that they didn’t have to work for money. The rest of society engages in conspicuous consumption as they attempt to mimic the tastes and behaviors of the leisure class. CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS Audit Study Research experiment in which researchers match participants on key characteristics. Method A systematic study design that allows us to study the social world, and makes our consciousness more reliable. Confirmation Tendency we all have to look for and accept information that reinforces Bias what we already believe Echo A space where we interact primarily with people or information that hold or Chamber reinforce our existing beliefs. Human Person who participates in a research study Subject Nuremberg First international guidelines establishing research ethics Code Tuskegee Long-term experiment on Black men in Alabama that demonstrates Syphilis unethical research design. Experiment Informed Voluntary agreement to participate in research based on a full Consent understanding of the potential risks and benefits. Vulnerable Groups that may need additional protections or considerations in order to Populations give informed consent. Quantitative Data in the form of numbers that reflect amounts Data Qualitative Non-numerical data Data Experiment Research method in which the environment is controlled to isolate the effects of one factor or characteristic. Survey Gathering data by asking people sets of questions Structured Interviews that follow a set of pre-written questions that are the same for all Interviews participants. Unstructured Interviews that include follow-up or additional questions that arise based on Interviews a specific participant’s responses. Participant Research method in which researcher spends time among a group, Observation observing and participating in their daily lives Historical Analysis of existing historical records Analysis Content Analysis of existing sources, focusing on key themes and patterns Analysis Research A question about a research topic that we can reasonably answer Question Unit of Item observed in a study (ex: individual people, cities, neighborhoods, Analysis apartment complexes, nations) Variable Any characteristic that has more than one possible value. Co-variation Relationship between variables Independent Variable that causes a change in another Variable Dependent Variable that changes in response to another Variable Hypothesis Statement about how variables are expected to relate to each other Population The entire group of interest in a study Operationaliza Defining variables into measurable items tion Sampling Selecting representatives of the population to study Ethnography In-depth study of a group and its culture. Sampling Method for choosing which members of a population will be in a sample. Frame Random A representative sample in which every member of the population has Sample some chance of being selected. Generalize Apply findings beyond the sample to the larger population. Non-random A sample in which not every member of the population has a chance of Sample being selected. Nonresponse Non-representativeness in a sample caused by patterns in who does and Bias doesn’t respond. Correlation A relationship between variables Causation One variable causes change in another variable Direction of Which variable is affecting the other when a relationship exists Relationship Causal Relationship that includes causation between variables. Relationship  Spurious When a third variable actually explains the apparent connection between Relationship two variables Validity Whether questions accurately measure the intended characteristic Social Problems introduced to data when respondents give answers they believe Desirability are socially acceptable Bias Reliability Consistency of measurements Network data graphic that captures the relationship between two things or how Analysis things are connected, revealing patterns between data or relationships Non-random A sample in which not every member of the population has a chance of Sample being selected. Nonresponse Non-representativeness in a sample caused by patterns in who does and Bias doesn’t respond. CHAPTER 2 KEY IDEAS (from textbook, lecture, etc.) Correlation vs. Causation; when two pieces of data relate positively, it doesn’t mean one causes the other The steps to establishing causation; 1) correlation 2) time order [which came first] 3) ruling out alternative explanations Experiments; Strengths Weaknesses Can’t ethically study some topics We can be confident of the effect experimentally of one element that has been Uncertainty of the subject’s behavior isolated outside of the controlled experiment Surveys; Strengths Weaknesses Can be done anonymously Not all of the questions we have about Can gather large examples as well social life can be answered as representative samples through surveys Allows for statistical tests for alternative explanations Allows us to state that the probability is casual  CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND THE INDIVIDUAL KEY DEFINITION CONCEPT Social structure The set of social statuses, roles, groups, networks, and institutions that organize and influence the way people go about their lives. Resources Things which are valuable or allow us to accomplish goals. Social status A person or group’s socially-determined positions within a larger group or society. Ascribed Status assigned by society without regard for the person’s unique talents, status efforts, or characteristics Achieved status Status that results from your efforts. Social - A social ranking system. hierarchy Life chances Opportunities to provide yourself with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences Social role Set of expectations concerning the behavior and attitudes of people who occupy a particular social status. Role conflict Inconsistency between two or more roles. Social group Two or more people with similar values and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis. Norms Rules and expectations by which a group guides the behavior of its members. Normative Behavior that meets norms. ​Social network Series of social relationships that link a person directly to other individuals and indirectly to even more people.  Social Central domains of social life that guide our behaviors and meet our basic institutions social needs. AgencySelf- Acting on your own will. Socialization Experiences that give us an identity and that teach us how to be members of society. Generalized Values and norms of the larger culture that guide your actions. Other Looking-Glass The way our perception of how others see us affects our sense of self Self Agents of Individuals, groups, and organizations that influence your sense of self and socialization help you learn the ways of being a member of society. Resocialization Socialization process by which we adopt new norms and identities. Hetero-normati The dominant idea of what it means to be a straight man. ve masculinity Total –Institutions that exert near-total control over members’ lives and engage in institutions resocialization. Veiling Muslim practice of wearing a hijab or veil. Sociological An understanding of the interplay between social structure and agency. imagination Micro-sociology Analysis of individual identities and interactions. Macro-sociolog Analysis of large-scale social structures and forces. y Symbolic The study of human interaction by focusing on the words and gestures that interaction people use and the meanings they create about the world. Structure of The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities across society opportunity Reflexivity Process of evaluating our position in the social world, the rules we are expected to follow, and the resources we have or can acquire. CHAPTER 3 KEY IDEAS (from textbook, lecture, etc.) Social Structure Social structure plays a powerful role in shaping individuals’ lives as well as their access to valuable social resources. Social structure provides a set of rules that people must navigate. Social status is correlated with positive life chances and access to social rewards. While it is difficult to change one’s ascribed status, the meaning of social statuses can be transformed. Ascribed status can influence one’s achieved status. Social groups and networks influence the behavior of their members. Social institutions often reproduce the status quo,but they can also be avenues for social change. The Individual Our ability to act according to our own will is shaped by the structural rules we encounter and resources at our disposal. Our sense of self may include classifications, social groups to which we belong, ideological beliefs, interests,ambitions, and self-evaluations. Our identities are constructed through the social influences that we encounter in our daily lives as well as how we see ourselves through the eyes of others. Our sense of self is always evolving,as is our understanding of what it means to be a member of society. The socialization process does not just happen to us as children or young adults; it occurs throughout our lives. The family, education, peer groups, and mass media are often identified as the four most important agents of socialization. Individual Agency and Social Structure There is a dynamic interplay between individual agency and social structure. Our actions are constrained and enabled by social structural rules and resources.Our actions also contribute to the construction of society. When deciding on a course of action, people take into consideration their social position, risks and rewards, structural rules,and available resources. It is important to use both micro and macro sociological perspectives when we analyze individual choices and social structural changes. Individuals make reflexive choices about how to act;those choices are influenced by social structural rules and resources. CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL CLASS, INEQUALITY, POVERTY KEY DEFINITION CONCEPT Stratification A system that puts categories of people into a hierarchy Social class A group of people who share a similar economic position based on income Social mobility Move from ascribed social class to achieved social class position Upward Moving up in social class mobility Downward Dropping into a lower social class mobility Cumulative Built up benefits and resources that allow people to increase their wealth advantage (white people have been able to pass more money to their children than black individuals have) Racial wealth The difference in accumulated wealth between races and ethnicities gap Meritocracy A system where personal responsibility and individual effort are the sole determinant of success (some have an easier path than others)(wealthy individuals paying to get their kids into college) GINI Index Statistical measure to compare inequality - Look how family income is distributed Absolute Without basic necessities of life, food, clothing and shelter poverty Poverty Establishes the minimum income level that the federal government says is threshold/ required to buy the basic necessities of life poverty line Relative Relative economic status of people in a society by looking at how income is poverty disturbed Capitalist Makes money from things they own such as businesses, real estate, stocks, class (top 1%) and bonds; their assets bring them continuous profits Upper middle Well-educated individuals who typically have jobs as business managers, class (14%) doctors, lawyers, accountants, and some small business owners Working rich Well-educated individuals who typically have jobs as business managers, doctors, lawyers, accountants, and some small business owners Middle class Likely to have a high school diploma as well as some college experience; (30%) typically work as teachers, nurses, master craftspeople (plumbers, electricians, carpenters), and lower-level managers Working class Have probably only completed high school or a trade school; typically work as (30%) office support (secretaries and administrative assistants), retail sales workers, factory workers, and low-paid craftspeople Working poor Have probably only completed high school or a trade school; typically work as (15%) office support (secretaries and administrative assistants), retail sales workers, factory workers, and low-paid craftspeople Underclass Work part-time, unemployed, or have inconsistent and unreliable work (10%) opportunities; often rely on public assistance to meet basic needs for food, shelter, and clothing CHAPTER 4 KEY IDEAS (from textbook, lecture, etc.) Social class is often defined by a combination of income, wealth, education and occupation Social classes-Albert Gilbert model Capitalists class (1%) Upper-middle class (14%) Middle class (30%) Working class (30%) Working poor (15%) Underclass (10%) Characteristic of the poor ○ Household = single mother = poor ○ Education = adults no high school = poor ○ Paid work = no income = poor ○ Disability status = unemployment higher for individuals with a disability ○ Regain = south has higher rates ○ Race = 2 times African American, Hispanics, ○ Child poverty = higher in hispanic and black individuals Low earnings and periods of unemployment are key factors in workers falling below the poverty line CHAPTER 4 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. According to Dennis Gilbert’s model of class structure, which of the following occupations is NOT a part of the middle class category? a. teacher b. nurse c. plumber d. lawyer 2. According to Dennis Gilbert’s model of class structure, retail sales workers are a part of the working poor category? a. True b. False 3. Those without the basic necessities of life such as food and shelter can be classified as: a. Underclass b. Poverty threshold c. Relative poverty d. Absolute poverty 4. The region in the US that has the highest rate of poverty is: a. North b. South c. East d. West  5. If one wanted to statistically compare inequality across countries, what would they use? a. GINI Index b. Dennis Gilbert’s model of social structure c. Socialization d. Participant observation CHAPTER 5: CULTURE KEY DEFINITION CONCEPT Culture A set of beliefs, values, traditions, norms, and practices; all the social categories and concepts we embrace. Culture is what feels normal and natural to us, but is, in fact, socially produced. Cultural Values or behaviors that are shared by all human cultures. Examples: incest Universals prohibition, art, dancing, gift giving, hygiene, etc. Language There are no cultures without language, yet there are thousands of different languages spoken in the world. It’s a cultural universal, but there is incredible diversity within this unity. The most distinctive feature of language is that it allows us to extend the scope of our experiences and even what we can imagine. Material Everything that is part of our constructed, physical environment, including technology Culture (Statue of Liberty, books, movies, food, furniture, buildings, magazines, cars, fashion etc.) Non-Material includes ideas, beliefs, social roles, rules, ethics, and attitudes of a society. Examples: Culture languages and words, dress codes, etiquette, rituals, business and social transactions, religion, laws, punishments, and values. Cultural Capital any aspect of culture (material or not) that people are able to rely on as a symbolic resource to produce status; key party in class reproduction Cultural Using a stash of beliefs, values, and attitudes that we learn how to deploy Toolkit based upon the situation at hand. Code Adopting a set of informal rules and manners attuned to a particular setting. Switching Values & Values –Moral beliefs vs. Norms – Rules for group behaviors, informed by Norms values, specifying appropriate and inappropriate activities. Culture A system of organizations that produce and distribute cultural goods (e.g industries music, food art) Corporate The acquisition of smaller corporations by larger on. Consolidation Popular Heavily produced and commercialized goods made for and consumed by a Culture large audience. High Culture Cultural goods made for and enjoyed by elite groups. Collective A set of images and words that represent a particular culture. representation Symbolic Aspect of culture that includes beliefs, values, norms, and language Culture Symbols Material or immaterial objects that group affix meanings to Rituals Routinized and highly important group activities. Diversity Corporations supporting cultural institutions in order to improve their Capital reputation. Branding Investing in cultural institutions focused on Indigenous peoples in order to Indigeneity appear supportive of indigenous groups. Conspicuous Gaining prestige by exhibiting valuable cultural goods consumption Subculture A group that uses alternative symbolic and material culture goods to distinguish themselves from the wider society Field A context of social relations (e.g., a profession, a community) where a particular kind of cultural capital is exchanged. Habitus A learned disposition, based within the particular social world a person inhabits. Status The social designation of honor, either positive or negative Symbolic Conceptual ways people separate each other into groups (e.g., traditions, boundaries styles, tastes, classifications). Boundary Creating and maintaining symbolic boundaries to limit group membership and work access to resources. Cultural People who differentiate themselves by knowing a lot about many different omnivores cultural fields. Globalization Integration of political and economic systems; has brought about intercultural communication and an exchange of ideas and values. Rationalizatio Weber’s term for capitalism’s trend toward increased calculability, efficiency, n predictability, and control. McDonaldizati Ritzer’s term for the increased rationalization and globalization of culture. on Cultural Imposition of a dominant group’s material and symbolic culture onto another imperialism group. Cultural Members of a dominant culture adopting cultural goods (e.g., ideas, symbols, appropriation skills, cultural expressions, intellectual property) of other cultural groups for profit. Culture Efforts to raise awareness around issues of hegemony through informal and jamming often illegal guerilla marketing campaigns. Global International production, distribution, and marketing system of corporations, commodity laborers, and consumers. chain CHAPTER 5 KEY IDEAS (from textbook, lecture, etc.) What is culture? Culture can be understood as a division between high and popular culture as well as looking deeper into the material and symbolic components of a cultural good. Culture is a system of values and beliefs. It can also be seen as values and norms at a macro level of society or meso level of an organization. Culture is a set of practices people use, that can change overtime. Culture has multiple definitions. Culture is a cycle Consuming culture is not always bad, it can be a thoughtful practice. Production of culture prospective shows how culture is made, shared, and used by multiple groups. Subcultures and fan cultures combine symbolic and material culture, and gives them new meanings. How culture works Culture can reinforce inequalities. People used to set themselves apart by deeply understanding specific areas of culture, but now in addition to that they acquire status by having a wider range of cultural knowledge. Culture can pave a path but it can also put up a wall. Cultural capital, fields, and habitus look at culture as a valuable resource which can change and influence our perspective and behaviors in the world. The culture jam Culture is a combination of beliefs and practices, but sociological perspective requires you to think about how history has played a significant role. A globalized culture has hidden consequences. Western culture localizes itself, but can cause deeper cultural imperialism and inequalities. ARTICLE: “Whatever Happened to Socialization?” (Guhin, Calarco, Miller-Idriss 2021) MAIN TAKEAWAYS They critique socialization as a concept and argue for a renewed use of socialization They argue that socialization ignores agency In theorizing socialization, power, history, and transferability is lost GUEST LECTURE: DR. BRIDGES KEY TAKEAWAYS There are 3 dimensions of sexuality, they include: Sexual desires - Your experience of sexual desires associated with persons of same and/or other genders Sexual behavior: - Your participation in sexual acts with people of same and/or other genders Sexual identity - The label with which you classify your own sexuality Discordance in sexualities is not uncommon; makes measuring sexualities challenging The Tearoom trade (Laud Humphrey) Humphreys study studied gender sexual behavior in an era of intense homophobia Humphreys study was interesting because it documented ways that, sexual identities can be at odds with sexual behaviors and desire Asking people their sexuality can lead to “false positives”, where people don’t answer truthfully, and say they’re part of lgtbq when they aren’t