History 474 – The Middle East Since 1500 Study Guide PDF

Page 1 of 2 History 474 – The Middle East Since 1500 Weeks 1-2 Important Themes in Armstrong, pp. 1-111. 1. What were some of the basic teachings that Muhammad preached during his lifetime? And what were the main causes of conflict between him and the Meccans who opposed his teachings and his suppor...

Page 1 of 2 History 474 – The Middle East Since 1500 Weeks 1-2 Important Themes in Armstrong, pp. 1-111. 1. What were some of the basic teachings that Muhammad preached during his lifetime? And what were the main causes of conflict between him and the Meccans who opposed his teachings and his supporters in Medina? 2. What were the main features of the rule of the first four successors to Muhammad (the so- called Rashidun or the “Rightly-Guided Ones”)? How can we explain the territorial expansion of Islam during this period? How did Arab Muslim rulers treat the subject population of their growing empire? 3. How did the legal and theological schools of mainstream Sunni Islam develop under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates? Here you could talk about the emergence of the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali legal schools as well as the emergence of the theological currents of this time. 4. There were four other major schools of thought that emerged in the Abbasid period. They included Twelver (or Imami) Shi‘ism, Sevener (or Isma’ili) Shi‘ism, philosophy, and Sufism. You should be able to say a few words about each of these, that how they developed during this period, and that what their beliefs or teachings consisted of. 5. Several groups of new people arrived in the Middle East between the tenth and the late fourteenth centuries. They included the Turks, the crusaders, and the Mongols. This period saw the decentralization and eventually the disintegration of the Abbasid caliphate. You should be able to explain the main political and cultural developments of this time period. For example, think about the factors that contributed to the rise of new principalities in various parts of the Middle East during this time. What were they? Important Themes in Nasr, pp. 21-58: 1. How would you characterize the main features of the sciences developed in the Middle East in the medieval and early modern periods? What were the ancient sources of these sciences? What specific branches of knowledge were the primary focus of these sciences? Important Themes in Wilkens and Savory, pp. 120-135: 1. What did the West borrow from the Middle East throughout the medieval and modern periods? What do these borrowings tell us about the complicated relations between these two sister civilizations? 2. How would you characterize fourteen centuries of interactions and coexistence between the Middle East and the West? To what extent could one argue that the West and the Middle East share common roots and origins? To what extent could one emphasize a long history of culture war between the two? Important names and terms: 1. Madrasa (medieval college for the study of religious sciences) 2. Ibn Sina or Avicenna (980-1037) 3. Ibn Rushd or Averroes (1126-98) 4. Al-Ghazzali (d. 1111) 5. Suhrawardi (d. 1191) 6. Rumi (1207-73) 7. Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328) 8. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) History 474 – The Middle East Since 1500 Study Guides for Week 3 Important Themes in Armstrong, pp. 115-138: 1. What were the main characteristics of the three large empires that emerged in the broader Middle East by 1500? Why does Armstrong call the Safavids, Mughals, and Ottomans “agrarian” empires? What were the principal similarities and differences of these three empires? Important Themes in Gelvin, pp. 1-29: 1. How would you describe Samuel P. Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” thesis? In what ways does Gelvin question this thesis in his introduction? 2. What are the three main points Gelvin considers important with regard to the medieval history of Islam? 3. How did the Turks influence various societies of the Middle East? In other words, what was the Turkish contribution to the cultures and civilization of the Middle East? 4. What do so many Arabic words that exist in English tell us about the introduction of foods, wares, goods, commodities, and ideas from the Middle East to Europe? 5. What were the principal similarities and differences of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires during the early modern period (from roughly 1500 to 1700)? Important names and terms: 1. Shah Abbas (in the Safavid Empire) 2. Akbar the Great (in the Mughal Empire) 3. Suleiman the Magnificent or Suleiman the Law Giver (in the Ottoman Empire) 4. Devshirme 5. Tiyul or timar 6. Millet system Important Themes in Armstrong, pp. 1-111 1.​ Muhammad’s Teachings & Conflicts with the Meccans ○​ Basic Teachings: Muhammad preached monotheism (belief in one God, Allah), social justice, charity, and moral responsibility. He also emphasized the importance of community (ummah), prayer, and accountability in the afterlife. ○​ Conflict with Meccans: Meccan elites opposed his message because it challenged the existing power structure, economic interests (linked to the Kaaba pilgrimage), and polytheistic traditions. His supporters in Medina, however, provided refuge and helped establish the first Muslim state. 2.​ The Rashidun Caliphs & Territorial Expansion ○​ First Four Caliphs: Abu Bakr (consolidated rule), Umar (expanded empire), Uthman (compiled the Quran), and Ali (faced internal divisions). ○​ Expansion: Military success, weak Byzantine and Persian Empires, and the appeal of Islam contributed to rapid growth. ○​ Treatment of Subjects: Non-Muslims (dhimmis) paid a tax (jizya) but retained religious freedom and local autonomy under Islamic rule. 3.​ Legal & Theological Schools under the Umayyads & Abbasids ○​ Legal Schools: ​ Hanafi (rationalist approach, flexible legal reasoning) ​ Maliki (focused on practices of Medina) ​ Shafi‘i (emphasized Quran and Hadith) ​ Hanbali (strict interpretation, later influenced Wahhabism) ○​ Theological Movements: ​ Mu‘tazilites (rationalist theology, free will) ​ Ash‘arites (emphasized divine will and predestination) 4.​ Major Schools of Thought in the Abbasid Period ○​ Twelver (Imami) Shi‘ism: Belief in 12 divinely guided Imams, last Imam in occultation. ○​ Sevener (Isma‘ili) Shi‘ism: Emphasized esoteric knowledge, formed the Fatimid Caliphate. ○​ Philosophy: Influenced by Greek thought, figures like Al-Farabi and Avicenna (Ibn Sina). ○​ Sufism: Mystical Islam, focus on spiritual experience, major figures include Rumi and Al-Ghazzali. 5.​ Political & Cultural Developments (10th-14th Century) ○​ Turks: Seljuks gained power, introduced military rule. ○​ Crusaders: Led to conflicts with Muslim states, but also cultural exchange. ○​ Mongols: Sacked Baghdad in 1258, ending Abbasid power. ○​ Decentralization: Rise of regional dynasties (Mamluks in Egypt, Ottomans later). Important Themes in Nasr, pp. 21-58  1.​ Scientific Developments in the Middle East ○​ Ancient Sources: Greek (Plato, Aristotle), Persian, and Indian influences. ○​ Key Branches of Knowledge: Astronomy, medicine, mathematics, chemistry, philosophy. ○​ Contributions: Algebra (Al-Khwarizmi), optics (Ibn al-Haytham), medical advances (Ibn Sina). Important Themes in Wilkens and Savory, pp. 120-135 1.​ Western Borrowings from the Middle East ○​ Medicine (Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine) ○​ Mathematics (Arabic numerals, algebra) ○​ Philosophy (Averroes’ commentary on Aristotle) ○​ Architecture & Art (Moorish designs in Spain) ○​ Navigation & Trade (Compass, astrolabe) 2.​ Middle East & West: Conflict or Common Roots? ○​ Shared Roots: Greco-Roman, Judeo-Christian-Islamic traditions. ○​ Cultural Exchanges: Science, philosophy, trade. ○​ Conflicts: Crusades, colonialism, modern tensions. Key Figures & Terms 1.​ Madrasa – Islamic religious college. 2.​ Ibn Sina (Avicenna) – Philosopher, physician, wrote The Canon of Medicine. 3.​ Ibn Rushd (Averroes) – Commentator on Aristotle, influenced Western thought. 4.​ Al-Ghazzali – Theologian, bridged Sufism and orthodox Islam. 5.​ Suhrawardi – Philosopher, founder of Illuminationist school. 6.​ Rumi – Sufi poet, founder of Mevlevi (Whirling Dervishes). 7.​ Ibn Taymiyya – Conservative scholar, influenced later Islamic reformists. 8.​ Ibn Khaldun – Historian, sociologist, wrote Muqaddimah on history and civilization. Important Themes in Armstrong, pp. 115-138 1.​ Characteristics of the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires ○​ Agrarian Empires: Armstrong calls them "agrarian" because their economies were based on agriculture, landownership, and rural production. Wealth and power were tied to land control and agricultural surplus. ○​ Similarities: ​ All three were Islamic empires with strong military organizations. ​ Used gunpowder technology for expansion. ​ Relied on bureaucratic and religious institutions for governance. ○​ Differences: ​ Ottoman Empire (Sunni Islam): Strong military and naval power, millet system for religious minorities. ​ Safavid Empire (Shi‘a Islam): Established Shi‘ism as the state religion, less centralized than the Ottomans. ​ Mughal Empire (Sunni with religious tolerance): Controlled India, diverse population, strong trade economy. Important Themes in Gelvin, pp. 1-29 1.​ Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” Thesis & Gelvin’s Critique ○​ Huntington’s Thesis: Argues that global conflicts are primarily caused by cultural and religious differences, especially between the Islamic world and the West. ○​ Gelvin’s Critique: Rejects the idea of fixed civilizations in perpetual conflict. Instead, he emphasizes historical interactions, exchanges, and cooperation between societies. 2.​ Three Main Points About Medieval Islamic History ○​ Islamic Civilization Was Not Static: It evolved over time and adapted to different cultures. ○​ Islamic World Was Deeply Connected to Other Societies: Trade, knowledge, and political exchanges shaped global history. ○​ Diversity Within Islam: Different regions developed distinct cultural and religious practices. 3.​ Turkish Influence on the Middle East ○​ Political Influence: Turks established major empires (Seljuks, Ottomans). ○​ Cultural Influence: Turkish language, military traditions, and governance influenced Islamic societies. ○​ Economic Influence: Controlled key trade routes and contributed to commerce. 4.​ Arabic Loanwords in English & Cultural Exchange  ○​ Many English words (e.g., algebra, coffee, sugar, cotton) originate from Arabic, showing the Middle East’s contributions to trade, science, and daily life in Europe. 5.​ Ottoman vs. Safavid Empires (1500-1700) ○​ Similarities: ​ Both were Islamic gunpowder empires. ​ Relied on bureaucracies and military power. ○​ Differences: ​ Ottomans (Sunni Islam): Ruled over a diverse population using the millet system. ​ Safavids (Shi‘a Islam): Had religious uniformity but were weaker militarily and economically. Key Names & Terms 1.​ Shah Abbas (Safavid Empire) – Strengthened the Safavid state, reformed the military, and promoted trade and culture. 2.​ Akbar the Great (Mughal Empire) – Practiced religious tolerance, expanded the empire, and reformed administration. 3.​ Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman Empire) – Expanded Ottoman rule, reformed laws, and strengthened governance. 4.​ Devshirme – Ottoman practice of recruiting Christian boys into military and administrative service. 5.​ Tiyul/Timar – Land grant systems in the Safavid (Tiyul) and Ottoman (Timar) empires used to reward military officials. 6.​ Millet System – Ottoman policy allowing religious minorities to govern themselves under their own laws.