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Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Intellectual Revolution 2 Title of the Lesson: Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society...

Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Intellectual Revolution 2 Title of the Lesson: Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society Time Frame: 3 hours INTRODUCTION Many written contributions through continued exploration of the possible relationships between the achievement of the early scientific community in seventeenth-century England and various forms of religious persuasion developed controversial interpretations and debates that made scientific development and technological innovations for today. This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology. OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of the scientific revolution. 2. Analyze how the scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Europe. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 PRE-TEST Write the correct letter of your answer on the space provided before the number. _____ 1. Where was Charles Darwin sent to study medicine? A. London University C. St. John’s Medical College B. Edinburgh University D. Grant Medical College _____ 2. Which theory was propounded by Nicolaus Copernicus? A. Heliocentric C. Geocentric B. Theory of Evolution D. Theory of Planetary Motion _____ 3. What name did Freud give to his model of the mind which comprised the Id, Ego, and Superego? A. Topographical model C. Unconscious model B. Structural model D. Genetic model _____ 4. In whose model presents that the sun moved uniformly around its off-center circle from the earth the sun appeared to stay longer in the summer quadrant, 93 3 ⁄4 days than in the winter quadrant, 89 days? A. Charles Darwin C. Sigmund Freud B. Nicolaus Copernicus D. Ptolemy _____ 5. In whose model states that there are two uniform motions around separate centers — the center of the circle and the center of the epicycle? A. Charles Darwin C. Sigmund Freud B. Nicolaus Copernicus D. Ptolemy _____ 6. Charles Darwin joined a geologic field trip or voyage sailing to South America with his young Botany professor, what is the name of the rebuilt ship wherein they are boarded? A. Galapagos C. HMS Beagle B. Tierra El Fuego D. Asia _____ 7. As a naturalist, Charles Darwin fell in love with this hot volcanic island by observing the tortoises, finches, trees, and other wildlife. A. London C. Galapagos Island B. Philippine Island D. Spain _____ 8. Sigmund Freud, analyzed dreams to understand the aspects of the personality of a child or patient, what is the title of his book for dreams? A. The Interpretation of Dreams B. The Interconnection of Dreams C. The Intelligence of Dreams D. The Secrets of Dreams _____ 9. In the pleasure principle of Freud, what is the regulating agent that necessitates coordination with the environment or the world of reality? A. Id C. Superego B. Ego D. Libido [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 _____ 10. At what stage of a developing child the mother has formed a very close link with the infant that can form a strong emotional bond? A. Oral Stage C. Genital Stage B. Anal Stage D. Phallic Stage THINK ABOUT THIS By making an infographics, show how did society shape science and how did science shape the society. DISCUSSION Below shows how science as an idea includes theories, observations, systematic methods about the nature and physical world through the process of learning by humans that develop better understanding of the world. As humans socialize and seeks answers to many questions on his or her environment and even on the outside world, humans discovered or find solutions through concrete ideas and explanations in the life or lifeless forms. During 16th – 18th century in Europe, the scientific revolution was very significant in terms of biological science and physical sciences [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 that clearly gave birth to the modern science that established a strong foundation for the modern society also. Nicolaus Copernicus, The Polish Astronomer Polish Name: Mikolaj, Kopernik German Name: Nikolaus Kopernikus. Born: February 19, 1473; Torun, Royal Prussia, Poland. Died: May 24, 1543; Frauenburg, East Prussia (now Frombork, Poland) Important Contributions: Heliocentric theory, Commentariolus (Little Commentary) and De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orb) (Westman, 2020) Religion: Roman Catholic Nicolaus Copernicus. Science History Images/Alamy Life, Education and Contributions The youngest of the four children, his mother, Barbara Watzenrode, the daughter of a leading trading family in Torun and Nicolaus Copernicus, Sr., was a trader who moved to Torun from Cracow. The city, on the Vistula River, had been an important inland port in the Hanseatic League (Rabin & Zalta, 2019), during 1491, Copernicus enrolled in the University of Cracow (today the Jagiellonian University) which offered courses in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. During this time, he was guided by his maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode (1447–1512) who was a church canon (cleric) and later Prince-Bishop governor of the Archbishopric of Warmia, since his father died in 1483. There was no record of Nicolaus having obtained a degree, which was not unusual at the time as he did not need a bachelor’s degree for his ecclesiastical career or even to study for a higher degree (Rabin & Zalta, 2019). [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 The figure presents the geocentric view that Copernicus studied as a schoolboy, the earth was fixed in the center of the universe. The sphere of stars spun around the earth each day, but as it spun the sun slowly moved along its tilted path, completing its circuit in a year. Copernicus soon realized that Ptolemy’s models for the orbits of the planets deviated considerably from the principles of perfection that Aristotle had laid down. This did not mean that Ptolemy was wrong, his models provided good predictions for the positions of planets at future times. But did not follow the ideal of geometric perfection (Gingerich & Maclachlan, 2005). In Ptolemy’s model, although the sun moved uniformly around its off-center circle (the inner circle in this diagram), from the earth the sun appeared to stay longer in the summer quadrant, 93 3 ⁄4 days, than in the winter quadrant, 89 days. The speed of the sun through the seasons was measured by the angular speed, that is, the rate of rotation, from the offset earth—not from the center of its orbit, the dashed axis in this diagram (Gingerich & Maclachlan, 2005). Meanwhile, Copernicus aimed to replicate the planetary motion described by Ptolemy’s earth- centered equant model with his sun- centered epiclyclet model, which eliminated the equant. In his model, Copernicus moved the center of his circle halfway between Ptolemy’s equant and center. In order to keep the planets’ motion on the same path as in the equant model, shown with the dashed circle on the right, Copernicus introduced an epicycle with a diameter equal to the distance between the center and the equant in Ptolemy’s model. In the equant model the motion about the center is not uniform, but in Copernicus’s model there are two uniform motions around separate centers — the center of the circle and the center of the epicycle (Gingerich & Maclachlan, 2005). [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Works of Copernicus 1. Commentariolus or Little Commentary – a pamphlet on both sides of about six large sheets of paper wherein he wrote out a description of his startling new arrangement for planetary motions, and stated: “Ptolemy’s widely-used planetary theories appear to correspond adequately with numerical observations. However, they seem quite doubtful, because they require the use of certain equant circles. As a result, the planets do not move uniformly either about their deferent spheres nor about its own center. A theory like this does not seem to me to be complete enough nor sufficiently pleasing to the mind. When I became aware of these defects, I often pondered whether a more reasonable arrangement of circles could be found. Such an arrangement would explain all the apparent irregularities while keeping everything moving uniformly as required by the principle of perfect motion.” Copernicus,Little Commentary, around 1510 2. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) – published 30 years after the Commentariolus. He boldly introduced the idea that the earth is not fixed in the middle of the universe, but is really a planet in orbit around the sun. Below are the principles he studied and proposed” 2.1. There is no single center for all the spheres. (Copernicus wished to have the moon’s motion centered on the earth, while the other planets’ motions were centered on the sun.) 2.2. The earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center of heaviness and of the moon’s sphere. 2.3. All the spheres encircle the sun, and therefore the center of the universe is near the sun. A detail of Copernicus’s own handwritten diagram of his heliocentric system. Sol, the sun, is fixed in the middle, while the earth with its moon (Telluris cum luna) revolves around the sun in an annual [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 orbit. 2.4 The earth-sun distance compared to the height of the vault of heaven (the shell of fixed stars) is so small as to be unnoticeable. As Copernicus exclaims at the end of the cosmological chapter in his Revolutions, “So vast, without any question, is the divine handiwork of the Almighty Creator.” (This principle is important to account for the annual motion of the earth not being detected by observing the stars; that is, stellar parallax is too tiny to be measured.) 2.5 Apparent motions in heaven’s vault are not real, but result from motions of the earth. The earth rotates on its fixed poles, while the starry vault, the highest heaven, remains motionless. (Here Copernicus gives the earth a daily rotation on its axis to account for the apparent wheeling about of the entire sky every 24 hours.) 2.6 The apparent motions belonging to the sun are not real but come from the earth and its spherical shell, which revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth therefore has more than one motion. (Here Copernicus makes explicit the annual motion of the earth, which must be added to its daily rotation.) 2.7 The retrograde motion that appears in the planets is not real, but is the result of the earth’s motion. Thus, motion of the earth by itself accounts for many apparent irregularities in the heavens. (The line of sight from the earth to Mars seems to move backward as the earth overtakes and passes Mars.) Other Important Contributors Who Supported the Idea of Copernicus (Scharf, 2014) 1. Galileo Galilei – an Italian who built his telescopes and seen the moons of Jupiter and phases of Venus, convincing him that Copernicus was right. 2. Johannes Kepler – the German contemporary of Galilei, stated that the orbits of the planets, including the Earth are traced and not perfect circles but rather eccentric ellipses, unsettling any conception of a rational universe. 3. Isaac Newton – English scientist who published his monumental Principia, laying out the laws of gravitation and mechanics that unwittingly, make the arrangement of solar system and of the universe at large a thing of austere beauty, untended by any guiding hand but physics and mathematics. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Charles Darwin, The British Naturalist British Name: Charles Robert Darwin Born: February 12, 1809; Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England Died: April 19, 1882; Downe, Kent Important Contributions: The Voyage of the Beagle and Descent of Man Religion: Christian (Desmond, 2020) Charles Darwin, carbon-print photograph by Julia Margaret Cameron, 1868. Courtesy of the International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House, Rochester, New York; https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin#/media/1/151902/1314 Life, Education and Contributions Charles Darwin was the second son of society doctor Robert Waring Darwin who taught him about human psychology and Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of the Unitarian pottery industrialist Josiah Wedgwood, she died when Darwin was just 8 years old. He was also the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, a poet, freethinking physician and stylish before the French Revolution, was author of Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life (1794–96). ► His father sent him to study medicine at Edinburgh University in 1825, he was also taught to understand the chemistry of cooling rocks on the primitive Earth and how to classify plants by the modern “natural system.” ► At Edinburgh Museum he was taught to stuff birds by John Edmonstone, a freed South American slave, and to identify the rock strata and colonial flora and fauna. ► Darwin was accompanied by Robert Edmond Grant as he collected sea pens and sea slugs on nearby shores and taught Darwin on the growth and relationships of primitive marine invertebrates, he believed that it held the key to unlocking the mysteries surrounding the origin of more-complex creatures. Grant was a radical evolutionist and disciple of the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, an expert on sponges. He was encouraged to tackle the larger questions of life through a study of invertebrate zoology, made his own observations on the larval sea mat (Flustra) and announced his findings at the student societies (Desmond, 2020). [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Darwin’s father switched him to Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1828 and was educated as an Anglican gentleman. He indulged in drinking, shooting, and beetle- collecting passions with other lords’ sons, and managed 10th place in the Bachelor of Arts degree in 1831. Here he was shown the conservative side of: ► Botany by a young professor - Reverend John Stevens Henslow. ► doyen of Providential design in the animal world by Reverend Adam Sedgwick, who took Darwin to Wales in 1831 on a geologic field trip. ► Darwin joined at Henslow’s suggestion of a voyage to Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America, aboard a rebuilt brig, HMS Beagle. He prepared himself with weapons, books and advice on preserving carcasses from London Zoo’s experts. The Beagle sailed from England on December 27, 1831 (Desmond, 2020). The Beagle Voyage Five years of physical hardship and mental rigor, imprisoned within a ship’s walls, offset by wide-open opportunities in this voyage. The following are some of the observations of Darwin (Desmond, 2020): plankton-filled town left him wondering why beautiful creatures teemed in the ocean’s vastness on the Cape Verde Islands (January 1832), the sailor saw bands of oyster shells running through local rocks the richness of the rainforest at Salvador de Bahia (now Salvador), Brazil full of “gaily-colored” flatworms and spiders parasitic ichneumon wasp he yielded huge bones of extinct mammals (fossils) Darwin handled skulls, femurs, and armor plates back to the ship — relics, he assumed, of rhinoceroses, mastodons, cow-sized armadillos, and giant ground sloths (such as Megatherium) partially gnawed bones of a new species of small rhea (bird) [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 The HMS Beagle latent on the sands near Rio Santa Cruz, Patagonia, South America. The vessel was ordered by British naval officer and scientist Robert Fitzroy and carried a crew, which included British naturalist Charles Darwin, on a survey mission that circumnavigated the world between 1831 and 1836. © Photos.com/Thinkstock The Galapagos Islands Darwin’s navigation continued to these frying hot volcanic prison islands wherein he observed the following (Sulloway, 2008): Darwin mistakenly thought that the Galápagos tortoise – adult specimens of which he did not collect for scientific purposes – was not native to these islands, he apparently interpreted reports of island-to-island differences among the tortoises as comparable to changes that are commonly undergone by species removed from their natural habitats. Darwin initially failed to recognize the closely related nature of the group of finches, mistaking certain species for the forms that they appear, through adaptive radiation, to mimic. The Darwin-Galápagos legend, with its romantic portrait of Darwin's ‘eureka-like’ insight into the Galápagos as a microcosmic ‘laboratory of evolution’, masks the complex nature of scientific discovery, and, thereby, the real nature of Darwin's genius. sloths (tree-dwelling mammal) become extinct his observations of wildlife on the island inspired his theory of evolution by natural selection [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Adaptive Radiation in Galapagos finches Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. The Origin of Species (Based on the summary of Barnes, 2018) Darwin’s book was first published in England in 1859. It details part of Darwin's argument for the common ancestry of life and natural selection as the cause of speciation, he summarized the evidence for evolution by connecting observations of development in organisms to the processes of natural selection. He presented the concept of special creation, which claims that God directly created all organisms in their current form, is inferior to the theory of natural selection for its ability to explain the diversity of life. He also discussed classification and homology as they relate to natural selection. He claimed that the theory of evolution by natural selection can explain many phenomena, including the patterns emerging from the classification of organisms, the tendency of embryos to look like with each other and then diverge from each other as their development progresses, and the presence of useless or vestigial organs. He said that the alternative theory of special creation has less explanatory power over these observations. The following are his arguments: 1. He argued that classifying organisms gives a clue about their ancestry and relationships to each other and let others see how biologists organize species into groups according to the characters of organisms within species, groups are then put into broader groups according to heir more general characters. This process continues until there is just one group. For instance, dogs belong to a group called canines, but they also belong to a larger and more general group called Carnivora. Furthermore, they belong to an even more overall group called mammals, which fit in to the group of vertebrates. This process creates a descending pattern from the largest most general groups to the smallest most distinct groups, a system Carolus Linnaeus developed in the eighteenth century in Sweden. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 2. He noted that individuals of the same species vary from each other. Additionally, he says that these individuals will compete with each other for resources and, because of their variations, different individuals may be able to exploit slightly different resources. 3. Next, Darwin argues that the processes by which biologists classify species rely on common ancestry rather than on special creation. When looking at organisms through the scope of common ancestry, biologists can explain why they do not classify whales and fish together. They look similar because both of their ancestors have been put under the same pressure to survive and reproduce in an aquatic habitat, but in their basic parts they are very different, whales breathe air and give birth to live young, while fishes extract oxygen from the water and lay eggs. 4. In morphology, Darwin discusses the unity of life on earth. He calls upon homology of basic structures as evidence of evolution from a common ancestor. Darwin defines homologies as structures that seem to be of the same type across very different groups of animals, even though they may differ from each other in their forms or in how they function. He notes the similarities in bone structures between the limbs of organisms across different genera of animals used for different purposes, such as the hands of humans used for grasping, the wings of birds used for flight, and the paddles of porpoises used for swimming. The limbs are made of the same basic components: similar bones, in a similar order, from a similar pattern. According to Darwin, this phenomenon indicates a shared ancestor whose original body-plan has been modified over time, and supports the claim that species have not been uniquely created. Homologies of structure among a human arm, a seal forelimb, a bird wing, and a bat wing; homologous supporting structures are shown in the same color. All four are homologous as forelimbs and were derived from a common tetrapod ancestor. The adaptations of bird and bat forelimbs to flight, however, evolved independently of each other, after the two lineages diverged from their common ancestor. Therefore, as wings they are not homologous, but analogous. Photo taken at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10049/figure/A72/?report=objectonly [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 5. He stated that embryology is about developmental processes and phenomena. Embryos from different classes of animals, such as birds and mammals, look very similar to one another in early development. He tells a story about Louis Agassiz, a biologist who was at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Agassiz upon receiving new specimens of embryos, forgot to put a label on one embryo, later, when returning to the embryos he could not tell if the unlabeled embryo was a bird, a mammal, or a reptile because they all looked so remarkably similar. 6. Whether or not differentiation of organisms occurs in early or in late development, Darwin says that offspring will develop traits in the same developmental stages that their parents developed those traits. He supports his claim with examples of hereditary diseases. Darwin notes that an inherited disease will generally develop in the offspring at the same age it afflicted the parent. Darwin uses this observation to support his hypothesis of heritable variation. Darwin discusses one reason why embryos of animals from very different species look so similar to each other. He states that the stages of development when embryos look similar to each other are also the stages in which embryos generally do not interact with the outside environment. At these stages, embryos are largely dependent on their mother's wombs or on the egg, and they hardly interact with the outside environment. Darwin says that differentiation between embryos of different species will occur increasingly as the organisms are exposed to the outside environment and as they become more independent. The increasing divergence of embryos is because natural selection occurs during the time when organisms are interacting with their outside environment. Embryos of different species look similar because they share a common ancestor, and because they do not have to face as much selective pressure as adult organisms do. It is the adults that are subjected to their environment the most, and therefore selected. 7. Natural selection also explains a theory in developmental biology that says that the stages in an organism's development parallel the adult forms of other animals that were its ancestors. According to this theory, called recapitulation theory, the stage at which human embryos exhibit gill slits parallels the adult forms of our fish ancestor species. This theory came from the observation that embryos exhibit stages in development in which they resemble the adult forms of other animals. Darwin tried to explain these phenomena with the theory of natural selection. He explains that, although the results of natural selection enable researchers to conclude that animals replay their ancestry during development, the hypothesis of recapitulation is an exaggeration of the truth. Embryology can indicate evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms only because embryos have undergone less change than adults. Thus, biologists can see those structures that are similar between species at early stages of development. However, Darwin argues that not every stage of development corresponds to the form of its adult ancestor. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 8. In " Darwin’s Rudimentary Organs", he addresses the vestigial structures in animals, and it shows that only natural selection can account for these features. Darwin defines vestigial structures as structures that persist within a species but have lost their function. They are usually smaller than their homologues in other species, and are sometimes described as atrophied. However, Darwin's definition differs from the definition of vestigial structures used by later biologists. One of those examples includes the remnants of legs on snakes. Snakes do not use legs to move, yet some of them possess structures similar to legs; they are in the same location as the legs of other species, and they are composed of the same basic parts, although smaller. Naturalists correlated the rudimentary legs of snakes and the functional legs of lizards. Darwin uses these examples to critique the theory of creationism. Darwin asks: why would individually and uniquely created species have useless structures? Darwin says that, if we accept creationism to explain the origin of species, then we must accept that there is no rational explanation for these parts. In contrast, natural selection explains those phenomena. Organisms possess vestigial structures because they have an ancestor that also possessed these structures. Those structures in descendent species adapted for different functions, or disappeared due to selective environmental pressures, which their ancestors did not experience. Darwin's embryological arguments for evolution influenced the study of the relationships between evolution and development. For example, after the publication of The Origin, Ernst Haeckel in Jena, Germany, used Darwin's arguments in support of his biogenetic law or recapitulation, which stated that organisms replay their evolutionary ancestry while developing from embryos to adults. Many biologists accepted Haeckel's biogenetic law until the 1890s. Sigmund Freud, Austrian Psychoanalyst Austrian Name: Sigismund Schlomo Freud (later changed to Sigmund Freud) Born: May 6, 1856; Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire (now Příbor, Czech Republic) Died: September 23, 1939; London, U.K. Important Contributions: A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, The Ego and the Id, The Interpretation of Dreams Religion: Atheist but his Jewish background and upbringing played an important role in the development of his ideas. (Jay, 2020) https://iep.utm.edu/freud/ [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Life, Education and Contributions (Mitchell, 2020) Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 in the Czech Republic. After working much of his life in Vienna, he left in 1938 to avoid Nazi persecution. He moved to England where he died in Hampstead in 1939. Freud's early work in psychology and psychoanalysis endeavored to understand and cure the human mind by means of hypnosis. Freud's initial exposure to hypnosis in a clinical setting was over the winter of 1885-1886, when he studied in Paris with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned French professor of neurology. Charcot's work centered on the causes of hysteria, a disorder which could cause paralysis and extreme fits. He soon discovered that the symptoms of hysteria could be induced in non-hysterics by hypnotic suggestion and that the symptoms of hysterics could be alleviated or transformed by hypnotic suggestion. This ran contrary to the then- prevalent belief that hysteria had physiological causes; it suggested that a deeper, unseen level of consciousness could affect an individual's conscious conduct. In 1886 Freud started a clinical practice in neuropsychology at Berggasse, Austria. He used this consulting room for almost fifty years. About the same time Freud began another association with a Viennese physician named Josef Breuer. In 1893 Breuer had presented a paper titled 'Studies in Hysteria.' In essence Breuer stated that forgotten traumas, painful incidents that had left a psychological scar, were responsible for what was at that time called hysteria. It was, Breuer wrote, the undischarged emotional energy associated with these forgotten traumas that were the root cause of hysteria. Using hypnotic techniques, Breuer helped some patients to re-enact, and thus recall, the original traumatic incident, and integrate it into long- term memory. In doing so the emotional charge was released. This emotionally intense transfer of a memory from the unconscious to the conscious is known as catharsis or abreaction - an effective method which seems to corroborate Freud's theories on the unconscious mind. Freud adopted this practice at first but it was not until he began allowing his patients to freely associate ideas with whatever came to mind, that he really explored spontaneous abreaction. He abandoned hypnosis in favor of conscious psychoanalysis, first with the technique of free association, then eventually with his well-known technique of observational, couch-based psychoanalysis. Freud himself suffered bouts of deep anxiety, and it was partly this that led him to explore the connection between association of ideas and dreams. Freud noticed that patients would often find a connection between the direction of their associations and a dream they had experienced. He aided his patients to uncover and follow both obvious and hidden associations and emotions connected with the dream occurrences. Freud was able to make the breakthrough into seeing the connections with sexual feelings, with early childhood trauma, and with the subtleties of the human psyche. For Freud, dreams were the royal road to the unconscious. He began to analyze dreams in order to understand aspects of personality as they relate to pathology. He believed that behavior was not a chance occurrence; every action and thought is motivated by the unconscious at some level. In order to live in a civilized society, people have a tendency to hold back their urges and repress their impulses. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 However, these urges and impulses must be released in some way; they have a way of coming to the surface in disguised form: one way they are released is through dreams. Freud discovered that the elements in a subject's dream tend to be particularly close to repressed unconscious content and that free associations starting from those dream elements quickly encounter topics causing emotional arousal as the unconscious is stimulated, followed by resistance to those feelings. He revolutionized the study of dreams with his work The Interpretation of Dreams. Freud developed a model of the human personality which has stood the test of time. Many of the terms Freud introduced, such as Ego, Superego, the Id and the Unconscious are therefore still used in contemporary psychology. Freud's basic concept was a construct of the human psyche as an orderly progression through the developmental stages of childhood to final maturation in adult life. The Structure of the Personality Freud's orientation was biological, a natural result of his medical training and of the period in which he began his work. His conception of the individual was as a reservoir of dynamic energy, continuously seeking a means of discharge and in turn continuously needing replenishment. 1. Libido - he genetically inherent energy empowering the life instinct. The instinctual drive towards survival and replacement of energy requires translation into more specific terms such as 'food, love, security' etc. 2. Pleasure Principle - Instincts drive and direct behavior, the goal of which is the satisfaction of needs derived from the instincts. Needs create tension, and behavior is directed towards reduction of this tension, the attempt to keep excitation or tension as low as possible. In practice this is the desire for immediate gratification. 2.1 Id - which included other genetically inherent features, such as the impulse to love and to seek gratification. The Id strives to bring about the satisfaction of instinctual needs on the basis of the pleasure principle. The Id represents the inner world that has no knowledge of objective reality. Its psychic processes are primary processes - undirected attempts at immediate satisfaction. It is not governed by logic; it contains contradictory yet co-existent impulses. It is the individual's primary subjective reality at the unconscious level. 2.2. Ego - It develops from the Id because of the organism's need to cope with external reality for the satisfaction of its instinctual requirements. Freud described the Ego as a regulating agent and an intermediary, registering demands and meeting requirements, which in turn necessitates coordination with the environment - the world of reality. Although it seeks pleasure and the avoidance of pain, the Ego is under the influence of the Reality Principle. In Freud's theory, the Ego mediates among the Id, the Superego and the external world. Its task is to find a balance between primitive [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 drives, morals, and reality while satisfying the Id and Superego. Its main concern is with the individual's safety and allows some of the Id's desires to be expressed, but only when consequences of these actions are marginal. Ego defense mechanisms are often used by the Ego when Id behavior conflicts with reality and either society's morals, norms, and taboos or the individual's expectations as a result of the internalization of these morals, norms, and taboos. The Ego therefore is associated with a set of cognitive functions such as reality-testing, defense mechanisms, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory. 2.3 Superego in Freud is a piece of the higher Id which has direct access to the Ego and is society's representative in the psyche. Superego includes a psychic structure that acts in regulating the relationship between the instinctual drives and Ego, and the outside world. The concept of superego formation involves the process by which prohibitions and restraints, once externally imposed, become internalized. Then the actual presence of the original prohibiting persons is no longer required. We use the term internalization to describe that process by which the Ego forms inner or psychic representations of objects that had originally influenced the child from without. The Superego includes a conscious set of ideals, the pattern to which the individual consciously tries to adapt his life, and an unconscious set of prohibitions which attempt to prevent the direct expression of Id impulses. The conscious ideals are formed primarily through imitation of the parents, but throughout childhood and into adolescence they are further influenced by many of the adults with whom the child has contact. The unconscious prohibitions are formed very early in life from internalized parental ideals and prohibitions. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Three Mental Structures of Personality https://mind-development.eu/freud.html 3. Reality Principle - which is the delay of immediate gratification in recognition of social requirements or higher needs. It operates by means of secondary processes - perception, problem solving, and repression - that is, realistic, logical thinking and reality testing. The Developing Child During the early stages of infancy, the fundamental requirements are food, security and warmth, so that development can proceed without hindrance. This is as near to that desirable pre-natal condition as it will ever get – hence the very close link that is formed between mother and child. 1. Oral Stage - the infant's first source of pleasure is oral, deriving from the mouth. Bonding must occur at this stage or the capacity to form emotional bonds, as an adult, will be severely impaired. 2. Anal Stage - tension builds up as bowel and bladder functioning demand attention. When defecation and urination take place, the experience of the relief from tension is pleasurable. In contrast, frustration produces tensions and is experienced as pain and discomfort. The Anal Stage includes the child's first experiences with external regulation of an instinctual impulse, involving the postponement of the pleasure from relieving anal tensions. 3. Genital Stage - when the child begins to realize that it is a pleasurable experience to manipulate particular areas of the body, such as the mouth, the anus and the genitals. At the Anal Stage the child learns to differentiate between the 'ME versus NOT-ME'. This realization is followed closely by an immature forerunner of the Genital Stage. Later on, in the latency period, the child's energy once again focuses on his genitals. Puberty reactivates the early genital impulses and the person passes into the mature Genital Stage. The individual develops a strong interest in his or her sexual feelings. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved psychosexual developments of the earlier stages, the greater his capacity will be to develop normal relationships with a sexual partner. If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the Anal or Phallic stages, his development will be troubled as he struggles with further repression and defenses. If the previous stages have been successfully completed, however, the individual will develop into a well-balanced, warm, and caring adult. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, an interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The person matures from a narcissistic pleasure-seeking child into a reality-oriented socialized adult, with much of the Libido sublimated into group activities, vocational planning and preparation for marriage and family. 4. Phallic Stage - the instinctual urge is objective and aggressive, whereas masturbation in the immature Genital period is essentially a subjective experience. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 With a male infant the objective choice is the loved mother, with jealousy of the father; this is the Oedipus complex in which the boy develops a fear of castration by the father. After the child realizes that the father is much powerful as an adversary, reality sets in and the child now begins to understand the impossibility of his sexual obsession with his mother is. The boy then represses his desire for his mother and hostility towards his father, with whom he has identified. As a result of this realization the Oedipus complex is supposed to be officially resolved. In the case of a female infant the situation is more complex. The girl develops a love for the father and corresponding jealousy of the mother. The anatomical genital difference from her brother raises the fear that she has been castrated, and for this she blames the mother - this is the Elektra complex. Her love for the father is also tinged with envy because he has what she lacks. Her Elektra complex is not repressed but is modified by reality and weakens with time, so that she remains identified with the mother. 5. Latency period - lasting from about age five or six to puberty. Adolescence, with its sexual emphasis, gradually channels the sexual impulse into object choices, and finally merges into adult life. During the state of latency, a child's sexual impulses are repressed. The reason for this is that during the stage before Latency (Phallic stage) the child resolves the Oedipus or Electra Complex which are such traumatic events that the child then repress all of his or her sexual impulses. The child then realizes that his/her wishes and longings cannot be fulfilled and will turn away from his/her original desires. Hence, he/she starts the identification with the parent of the same sex and this will lead to rapidly evolving sex roles. The energy, previously put in the Oedipus problem can be used for developing the self. During the latency phase the drives are decreased and the libido is transferred from parents to friends, clubs and leading figures. The Superego is already present, but becomes more organized and principled. Culturally valued skills and values are acquired and feelings of shame, guilt and disgust arise. The child has evolved from an animal-like creature with primitive drives to a reasonable human being with complex feelings. The child learns to adapt to reality and also begins the process of what Freud terms "infantile amnesia," the repression of the earliest traumatic, overly sexual or painful memories. A child has six developmental tasks in the emotional domain: 1. the creation and sensation of a sense of self as distinct from others, 2. ability to tolerate emotions in self and others, 3. the capacity to manage aggressive urges, 4. the development of a sense of cause and effect and of control over the environment, 5. the development of a self-reflective capacity and 6. the capacity to enter into and sustain a state of latency, repressing inappropriate sexual drives. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Stages of Superego Maturity Superego development may be divided into layers representing historical phases of the infantile struggle to master primitive forms of instinct... 1. A primitive layer with punishment for oral-sadistic and anal fantasies; 2. The benign Superego, which derives from the image of the loving and comforting parent, especially the mother. When a harmonious relation exists between it and the Ego, there is a feeling of self-confidence and love; when a state of tension exists between the two there results a feeling of not being loved and a fear of abandonment out of which develops the feeling of guilt in the common sense of the word. 3. Oedipally-derived layer containing derivatives of the incest situation, jealousy, rivalry, hostility, etc. 4. Acquisition of parental standards and values, ideals and injunctions, the internalization of parental love and protection, prohibition and punishment. 5. Superego death. This occurs when the Ego has become autonomous. Consciousness and the Unconscious Freud divided the mind into layers. Perceptual awareness, he termed the conscious state. But a large part of a person's inner life goes on outside awareness. This unconscious part of the mind includes some material which has been dissociated from conscious thinking - the Subconscious; and some that can relatively easily become conscious - the Preconscious contents. The Preconscious is described as having no sense of awareness but its contents are available for recall. The unconscious contains memories which have been repressed, and under normal circumstances cannot be recalled. Neuro-psychoanalysis combines the insights of both neuroscience and psychoanalysis to obtain a better understanding of mind and brain. Neuro- psychoanalysis has recently validated many of Freud's ideas, in terms of the left-right lateral axis of organization, the Conscious and Subconscious affective (emotional) aspects of lateralization are linked to right hemisphere and limbic processes, while the Conscious and Subconscious cognitive (analytical and verbal) processes are linked to the left. The Unconscious equates with the Brain Stem, the Cerebellum, the Pons and other deep brain structures - not specialized laterally; indeed, one of their functions is to integrate the two hemispheres. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 SUMMARY Intellectual or Scientific revolution is the historical period where the scientific principles or theories have been widely believed and acknowledged by the society where tested and contrasted. Charles Darwin's concept of evolution through natural selection took about one of the greatest intellectual and cultural revolutions in the modern time. It deeply changed the way we think of science, religion, philosophy – our modern society. Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer who used the term heliocentric system, which explains that planets orbit around the Sun; that Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow changes in the direction of this axis also explains for the existence of the equinoxes. Sigmund Freud observed and proposed that there are three parts (levels) of the mind; the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious. The unconscious is the part of the mind that stores emotional state, opinions or views, and desires unaware to the individual. REFLECTION Fill in the box the required information about the different intellectual revolutions presented in this module. Information Answers The 3 Intellectual Revolutionist Academic background of the proponents Name of Proposed Theories [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Main Concepts Objections encountered Is it acceptable in today’s society? POST-TEST True or False. ______ 1. Charles Darwin wrote Commentariolus or Little Commentary, a pamphlet on both sides of about six large sheets of paper. ______ 2. Nicolaus Copernicus wrote “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)” which was published 30 years after the Commentariolus. ______ 3. Galileo Galilei is an Italian who built his telescopes and saw the moons of Jupiter and phases of Venus, convincing him that Copernicus was right. ______ 4. Darwin’s observations of wildlife on the Galapagos island inspired his theory of evolution by physical selection. ______ 5. Darwin’s example in classifying organisms was dogs which he said belong to a group called canines, but they also belong to a larger and more general group called Carnivora. Furthermore, they belong to an even more overall group called mammals, which fit into the group of vertebrates. ______ 6. In Darwin’s natural selection, he explained that organisms possess the remaining or same structures because they have an ancestor that also possessed these structures. Those structures in descendent species adapted for different functions or disappeared due to selective environmental pressures, which their ancestors did not experience. ______ 7. Id is the instinctual drive towards survival and the replacement of energy requires translation into more specific terms such as 'food, love, security, etc. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 ______ 8. The Superego includes a conscious set of ideals, the pattern to which the individual consciously tries to adapt his life, and an unconscious set of prohibitions that attempt to prevent the direct expression of Id impulses. ______ 9. At the Genital Stage, the child learns to differentiate between the 'ME versus NOT-ME'. This realization is followed closely by an immature forerunner of the Anal Stage. ______ 10. With a male infant, the objective choice is the loved mother, with jealousy of the father; this is the Elektra complex in which the boy develops a fear of castration by the father. SUGGESTED READINGS AND WEBSITES https://www.britannica.com/topic/Copernican-Revolution https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1051&context=younghi storians https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/335422/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK230201/ GLOSSARY Terms Definitions Astronomy study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties. Naturalist one that advocates or practices naturalism or studies natural history like in the field of biology. Personality the quality or state of being a person or the condition or fact of relating to a particular person. Psychoanalyst is a healthcare provider who specializes in the mental health needs of adults, and children in some cases. Voyage course or period of traveling other than land routes. [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 REFERENCES Barnes, E. M. ( 2018, July 4). "The Origin of Species: "Chapter Thirteen: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs" (1859), by Charles R. Darwin". Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/origin-species-chapter-thirteen-mutual- affinities-organic-beings-morphology-embryology Desmond, A. J. (2020, April 15). Charles Darwin. Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin Gingerich, O., & Maclachlan, J. (2005). Nicolaus Copernicus, Making the Earth a Planet. In Oxford Portraits in Science. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford. Jay, M. E. (2020, May 04). Sigmund Freud. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud Mitchell, G. (2020). Sigmund Freud and Freudian Psychoanalysis. Mind Development Courses. Retrieved August 23, 2020, from https://mind- development.eu/ Rabin, S., & Zalta, E. N. (2019). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/copernicus/ Scharf, C. (2014). The Copernicus Complex, Our Cosmic Significance in a Universe of Planets and Probabilities. Scientific American / Farrar, Straus and Giroux New York. Sulloway, F. J. (2008). Darwin and the Galapagos. Biological Journal of the Linnean Societ, 29–59. Retrieved from Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Thornton, S. P. (2020). Sigmund Freud (1856—1939). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, A Peer Reviewed Academic Resource. Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/ Westman, R. S. (2020, May 20). Nicolaus Copernicus. Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolaus-Copernicus [Type here]  Bulacan State University SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY STS 101 Online Dictionary Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ [Type here]