Social Studies 2201 Past Paper PDF

13/06/2019 Social Studies 2201 Unit 2, Outcome 4 4.0 INNOVATION AND CHANGE In this outcome we will: 4.1 explain the significance of innovations during the Paleolithic Period (pre c. 10 000 BCE) 4.2 explain the significance of innovations during the Neolithic Period (c....

13/06/2019 Social Studies 2201 Unit 2, Outcome 4 4.0 INNOVATION AND CHANGE In this outcome we will: 4.1 explain the significance of innovations during the Paleolithic Period (pre c. 10 000 BCE) 4.2 explain the significance of innovations during the Neolithic Period (c. 10 000 BCE to between 4500 and 2000 BCE) Before we look at how we’ve changed, 4.3 explain how the Neolithic Revolution led to let’s look at where we started… the rise of civilization https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrt CgaGSJlU&list=PLfPKzPoLH--fNB7U- 4.4 explain the significance of select jbCnlC3t894w9xVr&index=2 innovations from the Ancient, Pre-Modern, and Modern Eras 1  13/06/2019 4.1 INNOVATION AND CHANGE What is the difference between an innovation and an invention? An invention is when an An innovation is when an entirely new object or existing object or method is method is introduced. changed so that they are more effective and/or efficient. Complete “4.0 - Thinking about Invention and Innovation” activity. 4.1 DETERMINING SIGNIFICANCE Historians try to determine how significant historical events are. To do this they must consider the following three criteria: Magnitude refers to the importance of the event or change Scope refers to how wide the effects spread Duration refers to how long the effects are experienced by society. Karl Benz drives the first automobile, July 3, 1886 How would you describe the magnitude, scope, and duration? 2  13/06/2019 MAGNITUDE SCOPE World Production of Automobiles from 1950 percentage share 3  13/06/2019 This map of the world shows travel time to major cities, closer is lighter, farther is darker. In essence it is a map of the global road network. DURATION Tesla Model X electric car drive across Canada pulling a trailer. 4  13/06/2019 Time Period 4.1 PERIODS IN HISTORY Terminology B.C.E. – stands for In this unit, we will examine examples of invention and “Before the Common innovations throughout history. We will keep in mind their Era” and includes significance and how they affected the lives of people. dates before the year 0. C.E. – stands for “Common Era” and refers to dates after the year 0. B.P. – stands for “Before Present” and is used to refer to dates many thousands or millions of years in the past. 4.1 WHAT IS PREHISTORY? Use the videos and your text to make notes on the following: 1. Define the Paleolithic and Neolithic Eras by noting the years and defining features (food, living arrangements, language/culture, etc.) of each 2. Identify some tactics Neolithic peoples used to make their lives better and more predictable/secure 3. Identify some challenges brought on by those tactics/innovations 4. Connect some aspect of Neolithic life to modern life https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bsIvCdBS_aI&index=2&list=PLPK47OCLWGbOusISYEVyM W_1Qv7WMiN-r (Paleo and Neo Stuff under 8 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yocja_N5s1I&list=PLPK47OCLWGbOusISYEVyMW_1Qv7W MiN-r&index=3 (John Greene in his Crash Course History debut under 11 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8AN7n2sQOg&index=5&list=PLPK47OCLWGbOusISYEVy MW_1Qv7WMiN-r (Hip Hughes on Neolithic Rev (10 min) 5  13/06/2019 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Complete “4.1 - Innovations of the Paleolithic Era” activity As you can see, humans are a relatively new addition to life on Earth. Prehistory refers to the period before humans developed writing systems. Because there are no written records from prehistoric peoples, discovering how they lived can be difficult. How do we know what life was like for prehistoric peoples? Archaeologists examine excavated sites for evidence: Bones can reveal physical appearance, height, diet, disease, and length of life. Artifacts (human-made objects) can reveal how people dressed, worshipped, or the types of work they did. 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Anthropologists study artifacts to learn about the culture of early humans. Culture refers to a people’s unique way of life and involve shared ways of doing things in common. What components make up a people’s culture? How is culture learned? 6  13/06/2019 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Early Hominid Discovery Mary Leakey lead the search for evidence of early human life in Laetoli (Tanzania) in East Africa. In 1978, they discovered prehistoric human-like footprints preserved in volcanic ash. These were left by creatures called australopithecines, a type of early hominid (creatures that walk upright). These footprints are believed to be 3,600,000 years old. In 1974, anthropologist Donald Johanson discovered the complete skeleton of an early female hominid in Ethiopia. She was nicknamed “Lucy” and lived around 3.5. million years ago. 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Paleolithic Era Period from about 2.5 million years ago to 8,000 BCE. Also known as the “Old Stone Age” Much of this period is referred to as the Ice Age, due to advancing and retreating glaciers. Characterized by the invention of tools, mastery of fire, development of language. Hominid Development Australopithecine Appeared 4 million years ago. Found in southern and east Africa First humanlike creatures. Could walk upright (helped with traveling great distances, carrying food, children, etc. Had developed the opposable thumb, making manipulation of small objects and tools easier. 7  13/06/2019 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Homo habilis 2.5 million years ago Found in East Africa Name means “man of skill” First to make stone tools from lava rock to cut meat and break bone. Homo erectus 1.6 million years ago Found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. First hominids to migrate from Africa Name means “upright man” May have been a more intelligent species than homo habilis (spoken language) Developed technology (ways of applying knowledge, tools and inventions to meet needs) Became skillful hunters creating tools for digging, scraping, and cutting First to use fire 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Archaic Humans (homo sapiens) Homo erectus developed into homo sapiens, which means “wise man”, and is the name for the branch of hominid which would later develop into modern humans. Includes homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals (the former migrated out of Africa approximately 350,000 years ago and evolved into Neanderthals in Europe. Physically similar to homo erectus, but with larger brains Neanderthals 200,000 to 30,000 BCE Found in Europe and Southwest Asia First to have ritual burials and religious beliefs Powerfully built (slanted brow, muscles, thick bone) Lived in caves or temporary shelters to survive harsh Ice Age conditions 8  13/06/2019 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Early Modern Humans (Cro-Magnon) Homo heidelbergensis that remained in Africa evolved into anatomically modern humans around 200,000 BP. These new homo sapiens sapiens would migrate to Europe and Asia as recently as 60,000-40,000 BP. Skeletal remains show Early Modern Humans are identical to modern humans Made specialized tools for planned hunts Studied animal habits and stalked prey Superior hunting made survival easier Continued development of language and cooperation, giving advantages over Neanderthals, who would soon become extinct Created cave paintings, musical instruments, jewelry 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA 9  13/06/2019 4.1 HUMAN ORIGINS IN AFRICA Hominid expansion Think about it… 1. Which advance by a hominid group do you think was the most significant? Explain. 2. Which skill do you think gave hominids the most control of their environment – toolmaking, use of fire, or language? Explain. 3. In your own words, write a paragraph that summarizes the significance of the Paleolithic Era in human development. 10  13/06/2019 4.0 INNOVATION AND CHANGE In this outcome we will: 4.1 explain the significance of innovations during the Paleolithic Period (pre c. 10 000 BCE) 4.2 explain the significance of innovations during the Neolithic Period (c. 10 000 BCE to between 4500 and 2000 BCE) 4.3 explain how the Neolithic Revolution led to the rise of civilization 4.4 explain the significance of select innovations from the Ancient, Pre-Modern, and Modern Eras 4.2 HUMANS TRY TO CONTROL NATURE Human life underwent incredible changes near the end of the Paleolithic era due to technological innovations. Tools for survival For much of the Paleolithic Age, humans were nomads - highly mobile people with no fixed home, moving from place to place foraging and searching for food. In other words, they lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Stone, bone, and wood were used to create more than 100 different tools with specific purposes. e.g., Early Modern Humans increased their food supply by developing new, specialized tools to make hunting more efficient (e.g., spears), knives, fish hooks and harpoons, bone needles, and chisels to make other tools. 11  13/06/2019 Artistic expression Other aspects of prehistoric human life can be seen through their art: cave paintings, animal sculptures, rock engravings and paintings jewelry of sea shells, lion teeth, bear claws polished beads from mammoth tusks 12  13/06/2019 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Beginnings of Agriculture C. 8000 BCE humans discovered that if they scattered seeds in some locations and returned the next season, new crops would be growing there. This discovery – farming or agriculture – meant people could now produce their own food rather than having to travel to gather it. This new idea would lead to the Neolithic Revolution (sometimes called the first agricultural revolution) and is one of the greatest breakthroughs in human history. Complete “4.2 - The Neolithic Revolution” activity. 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Causes of the First Agricultural Revolution Though it is unclear exactly why people in many different regions began to develop agriculture around the same time, a change in climate is thought to be a key factor. Increasing temperatures provided longer growing seasons and made soil more productive. Supplies of grain resulted in a population boom due to the steady supply of food it offered (compare unpredictability of hunting). 13  13/06/2019 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Mapping the shift towards agriculture 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Early Farming Methods Slash-and-burn farming was used by some groups to increase farming yields. Vegetation was cut and burned to clear a field Ashes increased fertility of soil Crops were planted for 1-2 years then rotated to another piece of land After a few years they would return to the initial site and repeat process Domestication involves the taming of animals like horses, dogs, goats and pigs. May have developed from driving herds of animals into natural enclosures (ravines or gorges) Man-made enclosures would make taming easier Provided steady source of protein, but increased spread of disease. 14  13/06/2019 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Agriculture Spreads Jarmo, located near the Zagros Mountains in NE Iraq, is said to be the birthplace of agriculture Agricultural settlement from 9,000 years ago Wheat, barley, goats, pigs, sheep, horses Within a few thousand years, people in many other regions, especially in fertile river valleys, turned to farming Africa (Nile river) wheat, barley China (Huang He River) millet, wild rice Mexico and Central America corn, beans, squash 4.2 THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Catal Huyuk This settlement, in what is now Turkey, is the best example of an early Neolithic village. Here a fully settled agricultural existence was established. Complete the activity “4.2 - Neolithic Life: Catal Huyuk”. 15  13/06/2019 4.0 INNOVATION AND CHANGE In this outcome we will: 4.1 explain the significance of innovations during the Paleolithic Period (pre c. 10 000 BCE) 4.2 explain the significance of innovations during the Neolithic Period (c. 10 000 BCE to between 4500 and 2000 BCE) 4.3 explain how the Neolithic Revolution led to the rise of civilization 4.4 explain the significance of select innovations from the Ancient, Pre-Modern, and Modern Eras 4.3 CIVILIZATION Agriculture Causes Change People began dwelling in larger, more organized communities, such as farming villages and towns. From some of these settlements, cities gradually emerged, forming the backdrop of a more complex way of life—civilization. The change from a nomadic hunting-gathering way of life to settled village life took a long time. Likewise, the change from village life to city life was a gradual process that spanned several generations. 16  13/06/2019 4.3 CIVILIZATION Effects of Agriculture Economic Changes Ancient people build irrigation systems to increase food production Food surpluses free some people to develop new skills and jobs Craftspeople make cloth, other objects; traders profit from exchange of goods Invention of wheel and sail enable traders to travel longer distances Social Changes A more complex and prosperous economy affected the social structure of village life social classes with varying wealth, power, and influence began to emerge slavery would develop as some people controlled land and work Religion becomes more organized Farming peoples worshiped the many gods and goddesses who they believed had power over the rain, wind, and other forces of nature 4.3 CIVILIZATION Civilization Develops Most historians believe that one of the first civilizations arose in Sumer, located in Mesopotamia (the area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in what is now modern day Iraq) by about 3,000 BCE. A civilization is often defined as a complex culture with five characteristics: 1. advanced cities 2. specialized workers 3. complex institutions Complete “4.3 - Case Study: 4. record keeping Sumerian Civilization” 5. improved technology 17  13/06/2019 4.3 CIVILIZATION 1. Advanced Cities The Sumerians lived in large population centres – cities. Historians believe these cities had up to 50,000 people and were centres of trade and goods production. These cities were regional hubs, with people from the wider area travelling to and from them to get the goods and Sumerian City Population Size services they required. Lagash 10,000+ Uruk 50,000 Examples of sumerian cities in Ur 65,000 Mesopotamia are shown on the right. 4.3 CIVILIZATION 2. Specialized Workers As food production from farms became more efficient through irrigation (supplying water to land, usually through channels), fewer people were needed in agriculture. This freed up people to develop skills in other areas (specialization) that would improve people’s lives. For example: Clothing became more elaborate and for style rather than merely warmth Metals (first copper, but then bronze) were used to create better tools and weapons (metal-working) Pottery was produced to hold grain, wine, or other materials Merchants developed as people who would exchange one good for another The skilled workers who produced goods by hand in these specialized areas are called artisans. 18  13/06/2019 4.3 CIVILIZATION Sumer’s cities were what we now call city-states. These operated like independent countries do today. 3. Complex Institutions Each city-state had its own patron god or goddess that people An institution is a long-lasting pattern of organization in a believed determined how well community. Examples include: crops grew, whether disease would devastate the population, etc. Government – As cities grew larger, it became hard for Religious leaders were so influential communities to make decisions with the input of everyone. due to the importance of pleasing the gods, that they often became the People in respected positions, or who had influence, would leaders of government, ruling the take control and make decisions for the large group (e.g., city. whether to go to war, creation of laws). Organized Religion – Those people in the community who specialized in religion and worshipping the gods would take on influential roles as priests and religious leaders. They guided the spiritual lives of cities and led ceremonies, rituals, and other important events from the temple or ziggurat. 4. Record Keeping 4.3 CIVILIZATION Around 3,000 BCE, the Sumerians developed the world’s first writing system – cuneiform. The Epic of Gilgamesh is the first great work of world literature that we have record of today and Cuneiform was based on wedge-shaped symbols that were dates from 2100 BCE. cut into clay slabs. The slabs were heated to form solid tablets. Scribes were people specially trained to use It tells the story of Gilgamesh, a king of the cuneiform to write down important information. city of Uruk, who was a great warrior and hero. In the beginning, record keeping was used to record trade transactions (how much of one good someone exchanged with another) and keeping track of tax collection. Eventually it became important as a way or writing down major events that affected a city-state, contributing to education systems, and allowing people to write down stories and develop literature. 19  13/06/2019 4.3 CIVILIZATION 5. Improved Technology Technology The city-states of Sumer developed technology that was beyond that of A new method or Neolithic towns that came before them. For example: way of doing things. Irrigation systems to improve agriculture Using animals like oxen to pull early plows and improve farming The potter’s wheel was used to create clay jugs, plates, and bowls Bronze (a combination of copper and tin) was developed and used to create tools and weapons that were sharper and lighter than stone. The use of Bronze in particular gave rise to the term Bronze Age, which is often used to refer to this period in history. Improved technology would be used in nearly all aspects of life, improving effectiveness and efficiency. 4.3 CIVILIZATION Videos on Mesopotamia / Sumer https://youtu.be/RiclXLWQk4k https://youtu.be/sIGOFlFoCLc 20  13/06/2019 4.0 INNOVATION AND CHANGE In this outcome we will: 4.1 explain the significance of innovations during the Paleolithic Period (pre c. 10 000 BCE) 4.2 explain the significance of innovations during the Neolithic Period (c. 10 000 BCE to between 4500 and 2000 BCE) 4.3 explain how the Neolithic Revolution led to the rise of civilization 4.4 explain the significance of select innovations from the Ancient, Pre-Modern, and Modern Eras 4.4 HISTORICAL INNOVATIONS What innovations come to mind for the following topics? Transportation Infrastructure Warfare Communications Health Care Energy These categories will form the basis of our next several classes as we explore some ancient, medieval, and modern innovations, which have greatly impacted the human experience. Complete “4.4 - Selected Innovations of the Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Eras”. 21  13/06/2019 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS Phoenician boats – gauloi (Transportation) After 1100 B.C.E the Phoenicians emerged to dominate trade in and around the eastern Mediterranean (in what is now Syria, Lebanon, and northern Israel). Phoenicia was located in a great spot for trade because it lay along well-traveled routes between Egypt and Asia. However, the Phoenicians did more than just trade with merchants who happened to pass through their region. The Phoenicians became expert sailors and went looking for opportunities to increase their wealth. 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS ▪ Phoencians developed a reputation for being remarkable shipbuilders and seafarers ▪ They explored and colonized areas in around the Mediterranean sea, Strait of Gibraltar and even Britain (according to some historians). ▪ Historians call them the “carriers of civilization” because ▪ The Phoenicians established a range of colonies or they spread Middle East settlements around the Mediterranean, which would civilization (remember serve as ports of trade. Trade would spread products, Mesopotamia) around the aspects of culture, and ideas from one place to Mediterranean. another. 22  13/06/2019 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS ▪ They became known for finely crafted bronze and ▪ An amphora was a silver goods, as well as glass. These goods and aspects ceramic vase used to of civilization (religion, ways of governing, etc.) spread carry such goods as olive throughout the southwestern Mediterranean as a result oil, grapes, wine, or grain. of their travel. They were commonly used for marine trade, ▪ The superior design of their sail boats made trade hence their usefulness to safer and more effective. the Phoenicians. A few innovations in shipbuilding made the gauloi (Phoenician cargo ship) well designed for marine trade: ▪ Boats were built to be wide with a round bottom, providing more storage space. They also had strong sails and oars for efficient travel. ▪ Wicker fences along the outer edge of the deck prevented goods from falling overboard. ▪ Cedar logs, a valuable trade item, was towed behind the boat to save on cargo space. 23  13/06/2019 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS ▪ The most sought after Phoenician trade good was a red-purple dye that became the standard adornment of royalty from Mesopotamia, through Egypt, and up through the Roman Empire. It was created from snails and was so expensive, only the wealthiest could afford it. ▪ Competition between the city-state, the skill of the sailors who transported the goods (and their well made ships), and the high art attained by the craftsmen in manufacture of the goods made this possible. 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS ▪ As merchants, the Phoenicians needed a way of recording transactions clearly and quickly so they developed a writing system that used symbols to represent sounds. ▪ The Phoenician system was phonetic—that is, one sign was used for one sound. In this sense, they created the first alphabet. ▪ As they traveled around the Mediterranean, the Phoenicians introduced this writing system to their trading partners. 24  13/06/2019 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS Roman Aqueducts (Infrastructure) ▪ What is the significance of water management in our society? (Think about issues we face, how would our differ without adequate water supplies?) ▪ Water management was also a concern for the Ancient Romans. ▪ They used aqueducts as a means to transport water from one place to another. 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS ▪ An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water. The name comes from the Latin for “water” (aqua) and “to lead” (ducere) ▪ In modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. In a more restricted use, aqueduct (occasionally water bridge) applies to any bridge or viaduct that transports water - instead of a path, road or railway - across a gap. ▪ Video - Engineering an Empire (https://youtu.be/jGN-KDH1A34) 25  13/06/2019 4.4 ANCIENT INNOVATIONS What would Rome and the Roman Empire have been like without the aqueducts? ▪ The Romans could not have built cities as big as they did without aqueducts—and some of their cities wouldn't have existed at all. ▪ With water from aqueducts, the Romans could have their baths, their fountains, and their drinking water. Without imported water, their society would not have been a bath culture. ▪ The city would not been as clean without sewers—took aqueduct overflow and flushed the refuse into the river, which damaged the river, but kept the city of Rome clean. ▪ With a population of 1 million at its peak, local rivers, wells, and springs would have become contaminated very easily….all major cities need reliable sources of water to sustain their populations. 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS The Stirrup (Warfare) ▪ A flat-based loop or ring hung from either side of a horse's saddle to support the rider's foot in mounting and riding. ▪ Simple yet innovative and revolutionary. What would be an issue with riding? The solution 26  13/06/2019 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS Prior to stirrups, horses had two primary functions in battle: pulling chariots, or serving as light cavalry to chase down routing (fleeing) enemy soldiers. Many mounted warriors dismounted before battle, using horses to help with travel and positioning. Riding without stirrups was exceedingly difficult requiring an extraordinarily skilled horseman to ride, let alone shoot, throw, or strike effectively at the same time. Originating in central Asia around 1000 BCE, the stirrup innovation created the mounted horsemen, which would dominate the battlefield for the next 2000 years. 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS The stirrup allowed horsemen to travel faster over greater distances while carrying weapons such as spears, swords, or shields. Later the horse soldiers from North of China, the Mongols, led by leaders such as Genghis Khan, would conquer much of the known world, relying on these advantages provided by the stirrup. Between 600 and 700 CE, steppe warriors from what is today Russia introduced the stirrup to Europe. Resisting Viking and mounted warriors from the East, the nobility of Europe began to fight on horseback as medieval knights. 27  13/06/2019 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS Combining the best ideas of the enemy with their own, they integrated mounted warriors, stirrups, saddles and lances into a new fighting system that was co-dependent on the economic structure of the society. The result was medieval mounted knights and feudalism. Feudalism was a social and political structure in which a vassal held land (and with it wealth) from a king or great lord in exchange for military service. Ownership of land was necessary to support numbers of horses to be used in battle. The stirrup gave mounted horse warriors greater effectiveness and importance in warfare, which would be reflected in their social position. Dr. Lynn White Jr. in his book Medieval Technology and Social Change states: Few inventions have been so simple as the stirrup, but few have had so catalytic an influence on history. The requirements of the new mode of warfare which it made possible found expression in a new form of western European society dominated by an aristocracy of warriors endowed with land so that they might fight in a new and highly specialized way…. The Man on Horseback, as we have known him during the past millennium, was made possible by the stirrup…. The simple invention of the stirrup changed the social and political make up of Western Europe. 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS The Printing Press (Communications) Prior to the invention of the printing press in 1450s, bookmaking entailed copying all the words and illustrations by hand (hence the name manuscript). Often the copying had been done onto parchment, animal skin that had been scraped until it was clean, smooth, and thin. The labour that went into creating them made each book very expensive (buying a book was like buying a car in today’s money). 28  13/06/2019 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS When the German blacksmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1452, he forever changed the lives of people in Europe and, eventually, all over the world. Because Gutenberg's press could produce books quickly and with relatively little effort, bookmaking became much less expensive, allowing more people to buy reading material. Video (https://youtu.be/XZN_X6gPjEc) 29  13/06/2019 4.4 MEDIEVAL INNOVATIONS The Printing Press Changes people’s lives Printing makes information widely available Illiterate people benefit by having books read to them in their own language Published accounts of maps and charts lead to more discoveries Published legal proceedings and documents makes right clearer to people Increased literacy led to greater rates of education and the eventual challenging of the established order and existing ideas Political structures and religious practices are questioned 4.4 EARLY MODERN INNOVATIONS Smallpox Vaccine (Health Care) Smallpox is a viral infection and highly contagious. It forms blisters on the human body. It is a disease that requires close human contact to replicate and survive. The total incubation period lasts 12 days, at which point the patient will either have died or survived. The mortality rate is alarming and survivors suffered horrible disfigurement. Due to animal domestication and living into close proximity to animals, many diseases cross over to human hosts including smallpox. Over time many humans exposed to smallpox developed immunity. The same was not true for Native Americans who died in huge numbers after the introduction of Smallpox by Europeans. 30  13/06/2019 4.4 EARLY MODERN INNOVATIONS Edward Jenner Edward Jenner was an English country doctor in the late 1700s. In his practice, smallpox was one of the most common and worst problems he encountered. In 1788, a smallpox epidemic occurred where Jenner practiced medicine and he noticed that the cattle farmers were not the ones dying from smallpox. Jenner theorized that cowpox (a much milder but similar disease to smallpox) was somehow protecting the farmers. Jenner extracted cowpox fluid and exposed a local boy who developed cowpox. He then exposed the boy to smallpox who remained healthy. Jenner achieved his goal of smallpox protection through observation, trial and error and without knowledge of viruses. His breakthrough led to the advent of modern vaccinations. Once a global scourge and responsible for as many as 300-500 million deaths in the 20th century alone, the last recorded death by smallpox was in 1978. 4.4 EARLY MODERN INNOVATIONS Steam Engine (Energy) Prior to the Industrial Revolution (See Unit 4), wind, water, tide and muscle - both animal and human - provided sources of energy, which neither caused pollution nor depleted finite natural resources. The use of coal, which can be burned to create steam power, dramatically changed the nature of work. It was 2-3 times more effective than burning wood. In the 1700s in Britain, vast coal deposits were known to exist, and new technology was being developed to collect this resource. The steam engine was developed to help miners access coal deeper in the ground. 31  13/06/2019 4.4 EARLY MODERN INNOVATIONS First located near coal mines, the steam engine would burn coal, which created great amounts of pressure that drove the piston in the engine. James Watt created a more efficient steam engine that burned less coal. This was also first used in the mining industry (making it cheaper to mine more coal), but others would use steam engines to power factories, boats, and locomotives (trains). With improved designs, the engine would be able to work much harder than man, animal, or wood fueled power. This dramatically increased production in many areas (it helped automate machines in factories), as well as greatly reduced travel times by land and sea. 32