Social Studies Study Guide PDF

‭Terms‬ I‭nvention:‬ ‭creating‬‭something‬‭entirely‬‭new,‬‭for‬‭example‬‭the‬‭first‬‭light‬‭bulbs‬‭or‬‭the‬ ‭telephone‬ ‭Innovation:‬ ‭is‬‭the‬‭proce...

‭Terms‬ I‭nvention:‬ ‭creating‬‭something‬‭entirely‬‭new,‬‭for‬‭example‬‭the‬‭first‬‭light‬‭bulbs‬‭or‬‭the‬ ‭telephone‬ ‭Innovation:‬ ‭is‬‭the‬‭process‬‭of‬‭improving‬‭the‬‭existing‬‭creations‬‭or‬‭finding‬‭new‬ ‭applications‬‭for‬‭them.‬ ‭Magnitude:‬ ‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭importance‬‭of‬‭the‬‭event‬‭or‬‭change‬ ‭Scope:‬ ‭refers‬‭to‬‭how‬‭wide‬‭the‬‭effects‬‭spread‬ ‭Duration:‬ ‭refers‬‭to‬‭how‬‭long‬‭the‬‭effects‬‭are‬‭experienced‬‭by‬‭society.‬ ‭BCE:‬ ‭before‬‭the‬‭Christian‬‭Era;‬‭before‬‭the‬‭Common‬‭Era‬‭—‬‭used‬‭to‬‭refer‬‭to‬‭the‬ ‭years‬‭that‬‭came‬‭before‬‭the‬‭birth‬‭of‬‭Jesus‬‭Christ.‬ ‭CE:‬ ‭Common‬‭era‬ ‭BP:‬ ‭Before‬‭present‬ ‭Prehistory:‬ ‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭period‬‭before‬‭humans‬‭developed‬‭writing‬ ‭systems.‬‭Because‬‭there‬‭are‬‭no‬‭written‬‭records‬‭from‬‭prehistoric‬ ‭peoples,‬‭discovering‬‭how‬‭they‬‭lived‬‭can‬‭be‬‭difficult.‬ ‭ rtifacts:‬ A ‭(human-made‬‭objects)‬‭can‬‭reveal‬‭how‬‭people‬‭dressed,‬ ‭worshipped,‬‭or‬‭the‬‭types‬‭of‬‭work‬‭they‬‭did.‬ ‭Culture:‬ ‭refers‬‭to‬‭a‬‭people’s‬‭unique‬‭way‬‭of‬‭life‬‭and‬‭involves‬‭shared‬‭ways‬‭of‬‭doing‬ ‭things‬‭in‬‭common.‬ ‭Hominid:‬ ‭These‬‭were‬‭left‬‭by‬‭creatures‬‭called‬‭australopithecines,‬‭a‬  ‭type‬‭of‬‭early‬‭hominid‬‭(creatures‬‭that‬‭walk‬‭upright).‬‭These‬‭footprints‬‭are‬ ‭believed‬‭to‬‭be‬‭3,600,000‬‭years‬‭old.‬ ‭Paleolithic:‬ ‭ ‬‭Period‬‭from‬‭about‬‭2.5‬‭million‬‭years‬‭ago‬‭to‬‭8,000‬‭BCE.‬ ‭ ‬‭Also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭“Old‬‭Stone‬‭Age”‬ ‭ ‬‭Much‬‭of‬‭this‬‭period‬‭is‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭the‬‭Ice‬‭Age,‬‭due‬‭to‬‭advancing‬‭and‬ ‭retreating‬ ‭glaciers.‬ ‭ ‬‭Characterized‬‭by‬‭the‬‭invention‬‭of‬‭tools,‬‭mastery‬‭of‬‭fire,‬‭development‬‭of‬ ‭language.‬ ‭Nomad:‬ ‭For‬‭much‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Paleolithic‬‭Age,‬‭humans‬‭were‬‭nomads‬‭-‬ ‭highly‬‭mobile‬‭people‬‭with‬‭no‬‭fixed‬‭home,‬‭moving‬‭from‬ ‭place‬‭to‬‭place‬‭foraging‬‭and‬‭searching‬‭for‬‭food.‬‭In‬‭other‬ ‭words,‬‭they‬‭lived‬‭a‬‭hunter-gatherer‬‭lifestyle.‬ ‭Hunter‬‭Gatherer:‬ ‭For‬‭much‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Paleolithic‬‭Age,‬‭humans‬‭were‬‭nomads‬‭-‬ ‭highly‬‭mobile‬‭people‬‭with‬‭no‬‭fixed‬‭home,‬‭moving‬‭from‬ ‭place‬‭to‬‭place‬‭foraging‬‭and‬‭searching‬‭for‬‭food.‬‭In‬‭other‬ ‭words,‬‭they‬‭lived‬‭a‬‭hunter-gatherer‬‭lifestyle.‬ ‭Neolithic‬‭Revolution:‬ ‭This‬‭new‬‭idea‬‭would‬‭lead‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Neolithic‬‭Revolution‬‭(sometimes‬‭called‬‭the‬ ‭first‬ ‭agricultural‬‭revolution)‬‭and‬‭is‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭greatest‬‭breakthroughs‬‭in‬‭human‬ ‭history.‬ ‭Slash‬‭and‬‭Burn:‬ ‭Slash-and-burn‬‭farming‬‭was‬‭used‬‭by‬‭some‬‭groups‬‭to‬ ‭increase‬‭farming‬‭yields.‬ ‭ ‬‭Vegetation‬‭was‬‭cut‬‭and‬‭burned‬‭to‬‭clear‬‭a‬‭field‬ ‭ ‬‭Ashes‬‭increased‬‭fertility‬‭of‬‭soil‬ ‭ ‬‭Crops‬‭were‬‭planted‬‭for‬‭1-2‬‭years‬‭then‬‭rotated‬‭to‬ ‭another‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭land‬ ‭ ‬‭After‬‭a‬‭few‬‭years‬‭they‬‭would‬‭return‬‭to‬‭the‬‭initial‬‭site‬ ‭and‬‭repeat‬‭process‬ ‭Domestication:‬  ‭involves‬‭the‬‭taming‬‭of‬‭animals‬‭like‬ ‭horses,‬‭dogs,‬‭goats‬‭and‬‭pigs.‬ ‭ ‬‭May‬‭have‬‭developed‬‭from‬‭driving‬‭herds‬‭of‬ ‭animals‬‭into‬‭natural‬‭enclosures‬‭(ravines‬‭or‬ ‭gorges)‬ ‭ ‬‭Man-made‬‭enclosures‬‭would‬‭make‬‭taming‬‭easier‬ ‭ ‬‭Provided‬‭steady‬‭source‬‭of‬‭protein,‬‭but‬‭increased‬ ‭spread‬‭of‬‭disease.‬ ‭Mesopotamia:‬ ‭Mesopotamia‬‭(the‬‭area‬‭between‬‭the‬ ‭Euphrates‬‭and‬‭Tigris‬‭rivers‬‭in‬‭what‬‭is‬‭now‬ ‭modern‬‭day‬‭Iraq)‬‭by‬‭about‬‭3,000‬‭BCE.‬ ‭Civilization:‬ ‭A‬‭civilization‬‭is‬‭often‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭a‬‭complex‬ ‭culture‬‭with‬‭five‬‭characteristics:‬ ‭1.‬‭advanced‬‭cities‬ ‭2.‬‭specialized‬‭workers‬ ‭3.‬‭complex‬‭institutions‬ ‭4.‬‭record‬‭keeping‬ ‭5.‬‭improved‬‭technology‬ ‭Irrigation:‬ ‭As‬‭food‬‭production‬‭from‬‭farms‬‭became‬‭more‬‭efficient‬‭through‬‭irrigation‬ ‭(supplying‬‭water‬ ‭to‬‭land,‬‭usually‬‭through‬‭channels),‬‭fewer‬‭people‬‭were‬‭needed‬‭in‬ ‭agriculture.‬‭This‬‭freed‬‭up‬ ‭people‬‭to‬‭develop‬‭skills‬‭in‬‭other‬‭areas‬‭(specialization)‬‭that‬‭would‬‭improve‬ ‭people’s‬‭lives.‬ ‭Artisans:‬ ‭The‬‭skilled‬‭workers‬‭who‬‭produced‬‭goods‬‭by‬‭hand‬‭in‬‭these‬‭specialized‬ ‭areas‬‭are‬‭called‬‭artisans.‬ ‭Institution:‬ ‭An‬‭institution‬‭is‬‭a‬‭long-lasting‬‭pattern‬‭of‬‭organization‬‭in‬‭a‬ ‭community.‬ ‭Cuneiform:‬ ‭Around‬‭3,000‬‭BCE,‬‭the‬‭Sumerians‬‭developed‬‭the‬‭world’s‬  ‭first‬‭writing‬‭system‬‭and‬‭was‬‭based‬‭on‬‭wedge-shaped‬‭symbols‬‭that‬‭were‬ ‭cut‬‭into‬‭clay‬‭slabs.‬ ‭ cribes:‬ S ‭were‬‭people‬‭specially‬‭trained‬‭to‬‭use‬ ‭cuneiform‬‭to‬‭write‬‭down‬‭important‬‭information.‬ ‭Technology:‬ ‭The‬‭city-states‬‭of‬‭Sumer‬‭developed‬‭technology‬‭that‬‭was‬‭beyond‬‭that‬‭of‬ ‭Neolithic‬‭towns‬‭that‬‭came‬‭before‬‭them.‬ ‭Bronze‬‭Age:‬ ‭The‬‭use‬‭of‬‭Bronze‬‭in‬‭particular‬‭gave‬‭rise‬‭to‬‭the‬‭term‬‭Bronze‬‭Age,‬‭which‬ ‭is‬‭often‬‭used‬‭to‬‭refer‬‭to‬‭this‬‭period‬‭in‬‭history.‬ ‭Gauloi:‬ ‭A‬‭few‬‭innovations‬‭in‬‭shipbuilding‬‭made‬‭the‬‭gauloi‬‭(Phoenician‬‭cargoship)‬ ‭well‬‭designed‬‭for‬‭marine‬‭trade.‬ ‭Aqueduct:‬ ‭An‬‭aqueduct‬‭is‬‭a‬‭water‬‭supply‬‭or‬‭navigable‬‭channel‬‭constructed‬‭to‬‭convey‬ ‭water.‬‭The‬‭name‬‭comes‬‭from‬‭the‬‭Latin‬‭for‬‭“water”‬‭(aqua)‬‭and‬‭“to‬‭lead”‬ ‭(ducere)‬ ‭Stirrup:‬ ‭A‬‭flat-based‬‭loop‬‭or‬‭ring‬‭hung‬‭from‬‭either‬‭side‬‭of‬‭a‬‭horse's‬‭saddle‬‭to‬ ‭support‬ ‭the‬‭rider's‬‭foot‬‭in‬‭mounting‬‭and‬‭riding.‬ ‭World‬‭View:‬ ‭Understanding‬‭of‬‭the‬‭world‬‭and‬‭their‬ ‭place‬‭in‬‭it‬ ‭Geocentric‬‭World‬‭View:‬ ‭The‬‭importance‬‭of‬‭this‬‭way‬‭of‬ ‭thinking‬‭can‬‭be‬‭shown‬‭through‬‭the‬ ‭widely‬‭accepted‬‭(at‬‭the‬‭time)‬ ‭▪‬‭First‬‭devised‬‭by‬‭Greek‬‭philosopher‬ ‭Aristotle‬‭in‬‭the‬‭4th‬‭century‬‭BCE,‬ ‭Earth‬‭was‬‭thought‬‭to‬‭be‬‭at‬‭the‬ ‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭universe,‬‭orbited‬‭by‬ ‭the‬‭other‬‭planets.‬  ‭ enaissance:‬ R ‭This‬‭age‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬‭Renaissance,‬‭meaning‬ ‭“rebirth”,‬‭which‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭a‬‭rediscovery‬‭of‬ ‭ancient‬‭wisdom‬‭and‬‭a‬‭focus‬‭on‬‭the‬‭individual.‬ ‭Humanism:‬ ‭Humanism‬‭became‬‭important.‬‭This‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭intellectual‬‭movement‬‭in‬ ‭which‬ ‭Renaissance‬‭thinkers‬‭studied‬‭classical‬‭(Greek‬‭and‬‭Roman)‬‭cultures‬‭to‬ ‭increase‬ ‭understanding‬‭of‬‭their‬‭own‬‭times.‬ ‭Secularism:‬ ‭Although‬‭most‬‭humanists‬‭were‬‭devoutly‬‭religious,‬‭they‬‭focused‬‭on‬‭worldly‬ ‭issues‬ ‭in‬‭addition‬‭to‬‭religion‬‭(secularism).‬ ‭Individualism:‬ ‭developed‬‭as‬‭the‬‭idea‬‭that‬‭people‬‭were‬‭entitled‬‭to‬‭seek‬‭their‬‭own‬ ‭fulfillment‬‭outside‬‭the‬‭needs‬‭of‬‭the‬‭community.‬ ‭Vernacular:‬ ‭Writers‬‭began‬‭to‬‭use‬‭the‬‭vernacular‬‭(spoken‬‭languages)‬‭to‬‭express‬‭their‬ ‭Ideas.‬ ‭The‬‭Reformation:‬ ‭These‬‭new‬‭branches‬‭of‬‭Christianity‬ ‭would‬‭develop‬‭when‬‭groups‬‭began‬‭to‬ ‭question‬‭the‬‭policies‬‭and‬‭actions‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭Catholic‬‭Church‬‭in‬‭late‬‭Middle‬‭Ages.‬ ‭They‬‭would‬‭establish‬‭their‬‭own‬ ‭Christian‬‭churches‬‭and‬‭this‬‭movement‬ ‭Pope:‬ ‭The‬‭person‬‭in‬‭charge‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church‬‭was‬‭the‬ ‭bishop‬‭of‬‭Rome‬‭–‬‭the‬‭Pope.‬‭The‬‭pope‬‭was‬‭seen‬‭as‬‭God’s‬ ‭representative‬‭on‬‭Earth‬‭and‬‭spoke‬‭for‬‭all‬‭Christians‬‭with‬ ‭God’s‬‭authority.‬ ‭Seven‬‭Sacraments:‬ ‭The‬‭Seven‬‭Sacraments‬‭are‬‭ceremonies‬‭or‬‭rituals‬ ‭that‬‭outwardly‬‭show‬‭the‬‭faith‬‭of‬‭Christians‬‭and,‬  ‭through‬‭their‬‭use,‬‭a‬‭connection‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Church‬‭and‬ ‭God.‬ ‭Scripture:‬ ‭Martin‬‭Luther‬‭came‬‭to‬‭the‬‭conclusion‬‭that‬‭Christians‬‭should‬ ‭live‬‭by‬‭Scripture‬‭(what‬‭is‬‭written‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Bible)‬ ‭and‬‭not‬‭the‬‭policies‬‭and‬‭practices‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭Catholic‬‭Church.‬ ‭Indulgences:‬ ‭An‬‭indulgence‬‭is‬‭a‬‭pardon‬‭or‬‭forgiveness‬‭of‬‭sins‬ ‭that‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church‬‭sold‬‭to‬‭Christians.‬‭When‬ ‭purchased,‬‭the‬‭buyer‬‭received‬‭a‬‭certificate‬ ‭indicating‬‭the‬‭money‬‭was‬‭paid‬‭and‬‭the‬‭sins‬‭would‬ ‭be‬‭forgiven.‬ ‭95‬‭Thesis:‬ ‭Were‬‭a‬‭set‬‭of‬‭95‬‭statements‬‭that‬‭criticized‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church‬‭and‬‭its‬ ‭practice‬ ‭of‬‭selling‬‭indulgences.‬ ‭Heresy:‬ ‭of‬‭heresy‬‭(believing‬ ‭something‬‭contrary‬‭to‬‭official‬‭Church‬‭teachings).‬ ‭Protestants:‬ ‭(those‬‭who‬‭believed‬‭a‬‭version‬‭of‬‭Christianity‬‭other‬‭than‬‭Catholicism)‬ ‭were‬‭much‬‭more‬‭open‬‭to‬‭new‬‭scientific‬‭ideas,‬‭because‬‭they‬‭thought‬‭that‬ ‭God‬‭revealed‬ ‭himself‬‭in‬‭both‬‭the‬‭Bible‬‭and‬‭in‬‭nature.‬‭So‬‭nature‬‭should‬‭be‬‭studied‬ ‭because‬‭it‬‭helped‬ ‭to‬‭better‬‭understand‬‭God.‬ ‭Carracks:‬ ‭The‬‭creation‬‭of‬‭sturdier‬‭boats‬‭with‬ ‭multiple‬‭masts.‬ ‭Circumnavigation:‬ ‭Sailed‬‭all‬‭the‬‭way‬‭around.‬ ‭Scientific‬‭Method:‬‭It‬‭required‬‭the‬‭collection‬‭of‬ ‭accurate‬‭data‬‭and‬‭the‬‭proposal‬‭of‬‭a‬‭logical‬ ‭Hypothesis:‬  (‭ a‬‭proposed‬‭explanation‬‭based‬‭on‬ ‭limited‬‭evidence‬‭that‬‭serves‬‭as‬‭a‬‭starting‬‭point).‬ ‭Gravity:‬ ‭Newton‬‭theorized‬‭that‬‭gravity‬‭was‬‭the‬‭force‬ ‭that‬‭controls‬‭the‬‭movements‬‭of‬‭the‬‭planets.‬ ‭Written‬‭Response‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Explain‬‭the‬‭lifestyles‬‭of‬‭the‬‭paleolithic‬‭period‬‭and‬‭the‬‭neolithic‬ ‭period‬ ‭Paleolithic‬‭Period‬‭(Old‬‭Stone‬‭Age)‬‭:‬ ‭‬ L ‭ ifestyle‬‭:‬‭Paleolithic‬‭people‬‭were‬‭hunter-gatherers‬‭,‬‭living‬‭in‬‭small,‬ ‭nomadic‬‭groups.‬‭They‬‭hunted‬‭animals‬‭and‬‭gathered‬‭plants‬‭for‬‭food.‬ ‭Their‬‭tools‬‭were‬‭simple,‬‭made‬‭of‬‭stone,‬‭and‬‭they‬‭used‬‭fire‬‭for‬‭warmth‬ ‭and‬‭cooking.‬‭Shelter‬‭was‬‭often‬‭temporary,‬‭like‬‭caves‬‭or‬‭huts.‬‭Social‬ ‭structures‬‭were‬‭relatively‬‭egalitarian,‬‭and‬‭they‬‭left‬‭behind‬‭early‬‭art‬ ‭and‬‭cultural‬‭symbols.‬ ‭Neolithic‬‭Period‬‭(New‬‭Stone‬‭Age)‬‭:‬ ‭‬ L ‭ ifestyle‬‭:‬‭The‬‭Neolithic‬‭period‬‭saw‬‭the‬‭rise‬‭of‬‭agriculture‬‭,‬‭where‬ ‭people‬‭began‬‭farming‬‭crops‬‭and‬‭domesticating‬‭animals.‬‭This‬‭allowed‬ ‭for‬‭permanent‬‭settlements‬‭and‬‭the‬‭development‬‭of‬‭villages.‬‭People‬ ‭specialized‬‭in‬‭various‬‭tasks‬‭like‬‭pottery‬‭or‬‭weaving.‬‭Social‬‭hierarchies‬ ‭began‬‭to‬‭emerge,‬‭and‬‭tools‬‭became‬‭more‬‭advanced.‬‭Neolithic‬ ‭humans‬‭also‬‭built‬‭durable‬‭homes‬‭and‬‭had‬‭more‬‭complex‬‭religious‬ ‭and‬‭cultural‬‭practices.‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Explain‬‭the‬‭5‬‭characteristics‬‭of‬‭civilization.‬ ‭Advanced‬‭Cities:‬‭Large,‬‭organized‬‭urban‬‭centers‬‭that‬‭serve‬‭as‬‭hubs‬‭for‬ ‭trade,‬‭culture,‬‭and‬‭administration.‬ ‭Specialized‬‭Workers:‬‭People‬‭perform‬‭specific‬‭jobs,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭artisans,‬ ‭merchants,‬‭and‬‭priests,‬‭which‬‭leads‬‭to‬‭a‬‭division‬‭of‬‭labor.‬  ‭Complex‬‭Institutions:‬‭Structured‬‭systems‬‭of‬‭government,‬‭religion,‬‭and‬ ‭economy‬‭that‬‭help‬‭maintain‬‭order‬‭and‬‭regulate‬‭society.‬ ‭Record‬‭Keeping:‬‭The‬‭development‬‭of‬‭writing‬‭or‬‭other‬‭methods‬‭to‬ ‭document‬‭laws,‬‭trade,‬‭and‬‭historical‬‭events.‬ ‭Advanced‬‭Technology:‬‭Innovations‬‭in‬‭tools,‬‭agriculture,‬‭construction,‬‭and‬ ‭other‬‭areas‬‭that‬‭improve‬‭life‬‭and‬‭productivity.‬ ‭.‬ ‭What‬‭are‬‭the‬‭6‬‭areas‬‭in‬‭which‬‭innovation‬‭occurs?‬‭Give‬‭an‬ 3 ‭example‬‭of‬‭an‬‭innovation‬‭from‬‭each‬‭of‬‭these‬‭categories‬‭and‬‭tell‬ ‭why‬‭it‬‭is‬‭important.‬ ‭Technology‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭The‬‭internet‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭The‬‭internet‬‭revolutionized‬‭communication,‬‭information‬ ‭sharing,‬‭and‬‭global‬‭connectivity,‬‭enabling‬‭everything‬‭from‬‭social‬ ‭media‬‭to‬‭e-commerce‬‭and‬‭remote‬‭work.‬‭It‬‭has‬‭reshaped‬‭the‬‭way‬ ‭people‬‭interact,‬‭learn,‬‭and‬‭do‬‭business‬‭worldwide.‬ ‭Business‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭E-commerce‬‭platforms‬‭(e.g.,‬‭Amazon,‬‭eBay)‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭E-commerce‬‭transformed‬‭the‬‭way‬‭goods‬‭and‬‭services‬ ‭are‬‭bought‬‭and‬‭sold,‬‭allowing‬‭businesses‬‭to‬‭reach‬‭global‬‭markets‬ ‭and‬‭consumers‬‭to‬‭shop‬‭from‬‭anywhere.‬‭This‬‭has‬‭drastically‬ ‭increased‬‭convenience‬‭and‬‭business‬‭opportunities.‬ ‭Healthcare‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭Vaccines‬‭(e.g.,‬‭the‬‭COVID-19‬‭vaccine)‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭Vaccines‬‭have‬‭played‬‭a‬‭crucial‬‭role‬‭in‬‭preventing‬‭deadly‬ ‭diseases,‬‭saving‬‭millions‬‭of‬‭lives.‬‭The‬‭rapid‬‭development‬‭of‬  ‭ OVID-19‬‭vaccines‬‭exemplified‬‭how‬‭healthcare‬‭innovation‬‭can‬ C ‭address‬‭global‬‭health‬‭crises‬‭and‬‭protect‬‭populations.‬ ‭Energy‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭Solar‬‭power‬‭technology‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭Solar‬‭power‬‭is‬‭a‬‭renewable‬‭energy‬‭source‬‭that‬‭reduces‬ ‭dependence‬‭on‬‭fossil‬‭fuels‬‭and‬‭helps‬‭combat‬‭climate‬‭change.‬ ‭Innovations‬‭in‬‭solar‬‭panels‬‭and‬‭energy‬‭storage‬‭systems‬‭make‬‭solar‬ ‭energy‬‭more‬‭efficient‬‭and‬‭accessible.‬ ‭Education‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭Online‬‭learning‬‭platforms‬‭(e.g.,‬‭Coursera,‬‭Khan‬ ‭Academy)‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭Online‬‭learning‬‭has‬‭democratized‬‭education,‬‭allowing‬ ‭people‬‭worldwide‬‭to‬‭access‬‭courses,‬‭degrees,‬‭and‬‭certifications‬‭from‬ ‭top‬‭institutions.‬‭This‬‭innovation‬‭makes‬‭education‬‭more‬‭flexible,‬ ‭accessible,‬‭and‬‭inclusive.‬ ‭Social/Environmental‬ ‭‬ E ‭ xample‬‭:‬‭Recycling‬‭and‬‭waste‬‭management‬‭innovations‬ ‭‬ ‭Importance‬‭:‬‭Innovations‬‭in‬‭recycling‬‭and‬‭sustainable‬‭waste‬ ‭management‬‭help‬‭reduce‬‭environmental‬‭pollution,‬‭conserve‬ ‭resources,‬‭and‬‭minimize‬‭landfills.‬‭These‬‭advancements‬‭contribute‬‭to‬ ‭building‬‭a‬‭more‬‭sustainable‬‭and‬‭eco-friendly‬‭world.‬ ‭.‬ ‭What‬‭three‬‭categories‬‭did‬‭people‬‭of‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭ages‬‭fit‬‭into?‬ 4 ‭▪‬‭Those‬‭who‬‭fought‬‭–‬‭nobles,‬‭knights,‬‭and‬‭soldiers‬ ‭▪‬‭Those‬‭who‬‭prayed‬‭–‬‭bishops,‬‭priests,‬‭monks,‬‭nuns‬ ‭▪‬‭Those‬‭who‬‭worked‬‭–‬‭peasants‬ ‭5.‬ ‭Who‬‭were‬‭Aristotle‬‭and‬‭Ptolemy?‬ ‭Ptolemy‬  I‭n‬‭the‬‭2nd‬‭century‬‭CE,‬‭Ptolemy‬‭(a‬‭mathematician‬‭and‬ ‭astronomer‬‭from‬‭Egypt)‬‭refined‬‭this‬‭view,‬‭creating‬‭what‬‭is‬ ‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭Ptolemaic‬‭Universe‬ ‭Aristotle‬ ‭First‬‭devised‬‭by‬‭Greek‬‭philosopher‬ ‭Aristotle‬‭in‬‭the‬‭4th‬‭century‬‭BCE,‬ ‭Earth‬‭was‬‭thought‬‭to‬‭be‬‭at‬‭the‬ ‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭universe,‬‭orbited‬‭by‬ ‭the‬‭other‬‭planets.‬ ‭6.‬ ‭What‬‭knowledge‬‭from‬‭this‬‭time‬‭period‬‭was‬‭acceptable‬‭and‬ ‭which‬‭was‬‭not?‬‭(Middle‬‭Ages)‬ ‭The‬‭best‬‭Knowledge‬‭to‬‭pursue‬‭was‬‭the‬‭knowledge‬‭of‬‭God‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Bible‬ ‭The‬‭study‬‭of‬‭the‬‭natural‬‭world‬‭is‬‭less‬‭important.‬ ‭7.‬ ‭What‬‭factors‬‭changed‬‭this‬‭world‬‭view?‬ ‭▪‬‭The‬‭Renaissance‬‭(approx.1300-1600‬‭CE)‬ ‭▪‬‭Printing‬‭press‬‭(1452)‬ ‭▪‬‭The‬‭Protestant‬‭Reformation‬‭(1517)‬ ‭▪‬‭Voyages‬‭of‬‭exploration‬‭(1500s)‬ ‭8.‬ ‭What‬‭happened‬‭during‬‭the‬‭Renaissance?‬‭What‬‭important‬‭shift‬ ‭occurred?‬ ‭ hat‬‭happened‬‭during‬‭the‬‭Renaissance?‬ W ‭Humanism,‬‭Artists,‬‭Scientific‬‭Revolution,‬‭printing‬‭press,‬‭secularism‬‭and‬ ‭age‬‭of‬‭exploration.‬ ‭What‬‭important‬‭shift‬‭occurred?‬ ‭▪‬‭It‬‭led‬‭to‬‭far‬‭reaching‬‭changes‬‭in‬‭art,‬‭learning,‬ ‭and‬‭views‬‭of‬‭the‬‭world.‬ ‭▪Artists‬‭painted‬‭and‬‭wrote‬‭about‬‭subjects‬‭that‬ ‭were‬‭relevant‬‭to‬‭people’s‬‭daily‬‭lives,‬‭not‬ ‭solely‬‭religious‬‭or‬‭Church-based‬‭art.‬ ‭▪Artists‬‭and‬‭writers‬‭attempted‬‭to‬‭show‬‭humans‬ ‭and‬‭their‬‭lives‬‭as‬‭they‬‭really‬‭were‬‭and‬‭not‬ i‭dealized‬‭(e.g.,‬‭they‬‭used‬‭perspective‬‭to‬‭show‬ ‭distance‬‭between‬‭the‬‭foreground‬‭and‬ ‭background‬‭in‬‭painting).‬‭They‬‭tried‬‭to‬‭be‬ ‭more‬‭accurate‬‭in‬‭their‬‭depictions‬‭of‬‭life.‬ ‭9.‬ ‭Who‬‭were‬‭:‬‭DaVinci,‬‭Raphael,‬‭Machiavelli‬‭and‬‭Bocaccio?‬ ‭Machiavelli‬‭and‬‭Bocaccio:‬‭Were‬‭renaissance‬‭writers‬ ‭DaVinci‬‭and‬‭Raphael:‬‭Were‬‭renaissance‬‭artists/painters‬ ‭ 0.‬ ‭Why‬‭was‬‭the‬‭printing‬‭press‬‭so‬‭important‬‭to‬‭the‬‭reformation?‬ 1 ‭▪‬‭a‬‭greater‬‭availability‬‭of‬‭books‬‭▪‬‭increased‬‭literacy‬‭rates‬ ‭▪‬‭rediscovery‬‭of‬‭knowledge‬‭and‬‭spreading‬‭of‬‭new‬‭discoveries‬ ‭▪‬‭published‬‭legal‬‭proceedings‬‭that‬‭led‬‭to‬‭an‬‭increased‬‭understanding‬‭of‬ ‭rights‬ ‭▪‬‭some‬‭publications‬‭challenging‬‭religious‬‭authority‬ ‭11.‬ ‭Who‬‭was‬‭Martin‬‭Luther?‬‭Why‬‭was‬‭he‬‭so‬‭important?‬ ‭Martin‬‭Luther‬‭was‬‭a‬‭monk,‬‭who‬‭taught‬ ‭theology‬‭(the‬‭study‬‭of‬‭religion‬‭and‬‭God)‬‭at‬‭the‬ ‭university‬‭in‬‭Wittenberg,‬‭in‬‭Germany.‬ ‭1.‬‭Nailing‬‭the‬‭95‬‭Theses‬‭(1517)‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭Happened‬‭:‬‭Luther‬‭famously‬‭nailed‬‭his‬‭95‬‭Theses‬‭to‬‭the‬‭church‬ ‭door‬‭in‬‭Wittenberg,‬‭Germany,‬‭which‬‭criticized‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church's‬ ‭practice‬‭of‬‭selling‬‭indulgences‬‭(pardons‬‭for‬‭sins).‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭This‬‭act‬‭is‬‭considered‬‭the‬‭spark‬‭that‬‭ignited‬‭the‬‭Protestant‬ ‭Reformation,‬‭challenging‬‭the‬‭Church's‬‭authority‬‭and‬‭the‬‭sale‬‭of‬ ‭indulgences,‬‭which‬‭Luther‬‭saw‬‭as‬‭corrupt.‬‭His‬‭ideas‬‭spread‬‭rapidly‬ ‭thanks‬‭to‬‭the‬‭printing‬‭press,‬‭gaining‬‭widespread‬‭support.‬ ‭2.‬‭The‬‭Doctrine‬‭of‬‭Salvation‬‭by‬‭Faith‬‭Alone‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭He‬‭Believed‬‭:‬‭Luther‬‭rejected‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭doctrine‬‭that‬ ‭salvation‬‭could‬‭be‬‭earned‬‭through‬‭good‬‭works‬‭and‬‭the‬‭purchase‬‭of‬  i‭ndulgences.‬‭He‬‭argued‬‭that‬‭salvation‬‭came‬‭only‬‭through‬‭faith‬‭in‬ ‭God‬‭(sola‬‭fide),‬‭not‬‭through‬‭human‬‭actions.‬ ‭ ‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭This‬‭concept‬‭became‬‭a‬‭foundational‬‭belief‬‭for‬‭many‬ ‭Protestant‬‭denominations,‬‭reshaping‬‭Christian‬‭theology‬‭and‬ ‭separating‬‭Protestant‬‭beliefs‬‭from‬‭Catholic‬‭teachings.‬ ‭3.‬‭Translation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Bible‬‭into‬‭Vernacular‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭He‬‭Did‬‭:‬‭Luther‬‭translated‬‭the‬‭Bible‬‭into‬‭German‬‭(the‬ ‭vernacular‬‭of‬‭the‬‭people)‬‭so‬‭that‬‭ordinary‬‭people‬‭could‬‭read‬‭and‬ ‭interpret‬‭it‬‭for‬‭themselves,‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭relying‬‭solely‬‭on‬‭priests‬‭to‬‭read‬ ‭it‬‭in‬‭Latin.‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭This‬‭empowered‬‭individuals‬‭to‬‭engage‬‭with‬‭scripture‬‭directly,‬ ‭increasing‬‭literacy‬‭rates‬‭and‬‭contributing‬‭to‬‭the‬‭spread‬‭of‬‭Protestant‬ ‭ideas.‬‭It‬‭also‬‭helped‬‭democratize‬‭religion‬‭by‬‭making‬‭the‬‭Bible‬‭more‬ ‭accessible‬‭to‬‭the‬‭common‬‭people.‬ ‭4.‬‭Rejection‬‭of‬‭Papal‬‭Authority‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭He‬‭Believed‬‭:‬‭Luther‬‭rejected‬‭the‬‭authority‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Pope‬‭and‬ ‭argued‬‭that‬‭the‬‭Bible,‬‭not‬‭Church‬‭tradition‬‭or‬‭the‬‭Pope's‬‭decrees,‬‭was‬ ‭the‬‭ultimate‬‭source‬‭of‬‭Christian‬‭truth.‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭His‬‭refusal‬‭to‬‭recant‬‭his‬‭views‬‭at‬‭the‬‭Diet‬‭of‬‭Worms‬‭in‬‭1521,‬ ‭where‬‭he‬‭famously‬‭said,‬‭"Here‬‭I‬‭stand,‬‭I‬‭can‬‭do‬‭no‬‭other,"‬‭led‬‭to‬‭his‬ ‭excommunication‬‭from‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church.‬‭This‬‭rejection‬‭of‬‭papal‬ ‭authority‬‭further‬‭split‬‭Christianity‬‭and‬‭led‬‭to‬‭the‬‭establishment‬‭of‬ ‭various‬‭Protestant‬‭denominations.‬ ‭5.‬‭Founding‬‭of‬‭Lutheranism‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭He‬‭Started‬‭:‬‭Luther’s‬‭ideas‬‭led‬‭to‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Lutheran‬ ‭Church‬‭,‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭first‬‭Protestant‬‭denominations,‬‭which‬‭spread‬ ‭rapidly‬‭throughout‬‭Europe.‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭Lutheranism‬‭became‬‭the‬‭foundation‬‭for‬‭many‬‭Protestant‬ ‭branches‬‭and‬‭greatly‬‭influenced‬‭the‬‭development‬‭of‬‭other‬‭reform‬ ‭movements,‬‭including‬‭Calvinism‬‭and‬‭Anglicanism.‬  ‭6.‬‭Cultural‬‭and‬‭Political‬‭Consequences‬ ‭‬ W ‭ hat‬‭Happened‬‭:‬‭Luther’s‬‭Reformation‬‭sparked‬‭a‬‭series‬‭of‬‭religious‬ ‭wars,‬‭conflicts,‬‭and‬‭social‬‭upheavals‬‭across‬‭Europe.‬‭It‬‭also‬‭prompted‬ ‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church‬‭to‬‭initiate‬‭reforms‬‭(the‬‭Counter-Reformation‬‭)‬‭to‬ ‭address‬‭some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭criticisms‬‭Luther‬‭raised.‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact‬‭:‬‭The‬‭Reformation‬‭led‬‭to‬‭the‬‭rise‬‭of‬‭religious‬‭pluralism‬‭in‬ ‭Europe,‬‭the‬‭weakening‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church’s‬‭power,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭rise‬ ‭of‬‭nation-states‬‭with‬‭their‬‭own‬‭religious‬‭identities.‬ ‭12.‬ ‭What‬‭were‬‭the‬‭causes‬‭of‬‭the‬‭reformation?‬ ‭Some‬‭people‬‭began‬‭to‬‭think‬‭the‬‭Church‬‭had‬‭too‬‭much‬‭power‬‭over‬ ‭people‬‭and‬‭politics‬‭and‬‭that‬‭abused‬‭this‬‭power.‬‭often‬‭less‬‭educated‬ ‭than‬‭they‬‭had‬‭been‬‭in‬‭the‬‭past,‬‭had‬‭families,‬‭were‬‭far‬‭too‬‭involved‬‭in‬ ‭politics,‬‭or‬‭broke‬‭their‬‭religious‬‭vows‬‭by‬‭gambling‬‭or‬‭abusing‬‭alcohol.‬ ‭13.‬ ‭Who‬‭were:‬‭John‬‭Wycliffe,‬‭John‬‭Hus,‬‭Erasmus,‬‭Thomas‬ ‭Moore?‬ ‭▪‬‭John‬‭Wycliffe‬‭(1320-1384)‬‭believed‬‭the‬‭church‬ ‭should‬‭only‬‭follow‬‭Scripture‬‭and‬‭not‬‭traditional‬ ‭teachings‬‭or‬‭church‬‭policies.‬‭He‬‭also‬‭translated‬‭the‬ ‭Bible‬‭into‬‭English,‬‭which‬‭allowed‬‭more‬‭people‬‭in‬ ‭England‬‭access‬‭it.‬ ‭▪‬‭John‬‭Hus‬‭(1369-1415)‬‭had‬‭ideas‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭Wycliffe‬ ‭and‬‭led‬‭a‬‭nationalist‬‭movement‬‭in‬‭Bohemia‬ ‭(modern-day‬‭Czech‬‭Republic).‬‭He‬‭questioned‬ ‭whether‬‭the‬‭pope‬‭should‬‭be‬‭involved‬‭in‬‭worldly‬ ‭affairs.‬‭He‬‭was‬‭burned‬‭at‬‭the‬‭stake‬‭for‬‭his‬‭heretical‬ ‭views.‬ ‭▪‬‭Erasmus‬‭(1466-1536)‬‭was‬‭a‬‭well‬‭known‬‭Christian‬‭humanist‬ ‭who‬‭advocated‬‭for‬‭change‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church.‬‭In‬‭his‬ ‭The‬‭Praise‬‭of‬‭Folly,‬‭he‬‭poked‬‭fun‬‭at‬‭greedy‬‭merchants‬‭and‬ ‭pompous‬‭priests.‬‭He‬‭believed‬‭Christian‬‭faith‬‭should‬‭be‬  ‭ ersonal‬‭and‬‭real,‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭based‬‭on‬‭ceremonies‬‭and‬ p ‭outward‬‭appearance.‬ ‭▪‬‭Thomas‬‭More‬‭(1478-1535)‬‭was‬‭an‬‭English‬‭humanist‬‭who‬ ‭tried‬‭to‬‭describe‬‭a‬‭better‬‭or‬‭perfect‬‭world‬‭in‬‭his‬‭book‬ ‭Utopia.‬‭He‬‭believed‬‭a‬‭better‬‭society‬‭would‬‭have‬‭no‬‭war,‬ ‭greed,‬‭or‬‭corruption‬‭and‬‭for‬‭this‬‭reason‬‭believed‬‭that‬‭in‬‭a‬ ‭perfect‬‭world‬‭there‬‭would‬‭be‬‭little‬‭use‬‭for‬‭money.‬ ‭14.‬ ‭What‬‭were‬‭Martin‬‭Luther's‬‭main‬‭ideas?‬ ‭1.‬‭Justification‬‭of‬‭Faith:‬‭Humans‬‭are‬‭not‬‭saved‬‭through‬‭their‬‭good‬ ‭works‬‭(e.g.,‬‭paid‬‭indulgences),‬‭but‬‭through‬‭their‬‭deep‬‭and‬‭honest‬ ‭faith‬‭in‬‭God.‬‭This‬‭would‬‭become‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭chief‬‭teachings‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭Protestant‬‭Reformation.‬ ‭2.‬‭Authority‬‭of‬‭Scripture:‬‭the‬‭Bible,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭word‬‭and‬‭will‬‭of‬‭God,‬‭is‬ ‭the‬‭only‬‭source‬‭Christians‬‭should‬‭take‬‭as‬‭a‬‭basis‬‭for‬‭religious‬ ‭teachings‬‭and‬‭practices.‬‭The‬‭word‬‭of‬‭the‬‭pope‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬ ‭Church‬‭were‬‭not‬‭based‬‭on‬‭Scripture‬‭and‬‭should‬‭therefore‬‭be‬ ‭ignored.‬ ‭3.‬‭Priesthood‬‭of‬‭All‬‭Believers:‬‭Luther‬‭taught‬‭that‬‭all‬‭Christians‬‭were‬ ‭equal‬‭and‬‭could‬‭interpret‬‭the‬‭Bible‬‭for‬‭themselves.‬‭This‬‭meant‬‭that‬ ‭the‬‭work‬‭of‬‭priests‬‭and‬‭the‬‭authority‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Catholic‬‭Church,‬‭would‬ ‭be‬‭greatly‬‭undermined.‬ ‭15.‬ ‭What‬‭were‬‭the‬‭voyages‬‭of‬‭discovery?‬ ‭The‬‭15th‬‭century‬‭saw‬‭an‬‭increase‬‭in‬‭global‬ ‭exploration‬‭by‬‭Western‬‭Europeans‬‭–‬ ‭these‬‭exploratory‬‭travels‬‭were‬‭called‬‭the‬ ‭voyages‬‭of‬‭discovery‬‭or‬‭voyages‬‭of‬ ‭exploration.‬‭The‬‭primary‬‭reason‬‭this‬ ‭began‬‭was‬‭not‬‭because‬‭people‬‭wanted‬‭to‬ ‭learn‬‭about‬‭the‬‭world,‬‭but‬‭for‬‭economic‬ ‭advancement:‬ ‭▪‬‭They‬‭sought‬‭spices,‬‭silks,‬‭and‬‭other‬ ‭goods‬‭that‬‭were‬‭not‬‭native‬‭to‬‭Europe,‬ ‭but‬‭were‬‭found‬‭in‬‭Asia.‬  ▪‭ ‬‭Trade‬‭routes‬‭over‬‭land‬‭were‬ ‭established‬‭with‬‭Asia‬‭for‬‭centuries,‬ ‭but‬‭took‬‭years‬‭to‬‭transport‬‭goods‬‭and‬ ‭materials.‬ ‭▪‬‭They‬‭wanted‬‭to‬‭find‬‭a‬‭faster,‬ ‭sea-based‬‭route‬‭that‬‭would‬‭connect‬ ‭Europe‬‭and‬‭Asia.‬ ‭16.‬ ‭Who‬‭were:‬‭Columbus,‬‭Cabot,‬‭Magellan,‬‭Cartier?‬ ‭▪‬‭Christopher‬‭Columbus‬‭“discovered”‬‭the‬‭New‬‭World‬‭(the‬ ‭Americas)‬‭in‬‭1492.‬ ‭▪‬‭John‬‭Cabot‬‭“discovered”‬‭Newfoundland‬‭in‬‭1497.‬ ‭▪‬‭Ferdinand‬‭Magellan‬‭captained‬‭the‬‭first‬‭voyage‬‭of‬‭exploration‬ ‭that‬‭circumnavigated‬‭(sailed‬‭all‬‭the‬‭way‬‭around)‬‭the‬‭globe‬‭in‬ ‭1519.‬ ‭▪‬‭Jacques‬‭Cartier‬‭explored‬‭and‬‭mapped‬‭the‬‭Gulf‬‭of‬‭St.‬ ‭Lawrence‬‭in‬‭the‬‭1530s‬‭and‬‭part‬‭of‬‭what‬‭would‬‭become‬‭Canada.‬ ‭17.‬ ‭Why‬‭were‬‭these‬‭voyages‬‭important?‬‭(16)‬ ‭▪‬‭Proved‬‭the‬‭earth‬‭was‬‭round‬‭and‬‭not‬‭flat‬ ‭because‬‭it‬‭could‬‭be‬‭circumnavigated.‬ ‭▪‬‭Continued‬‭to‬‭question‬‭accepted‬‭knowledge‬‭at‬ ‭the‬‭time‬‭because‬‭the‬‭world‬‭was‬‭proven‬‭to‬‭be‬ ‭larger‬‭than‬‭anyone‬‭had‬‭thought.‬ ‭▪‬‭Opened‬‭communication‬‭between‬‭Europeans‬ ‭and‬‭groups‬‭of‬‭people‬‭they‬‭did‬‭not‬‭know‬ ‭existed‬‭(e.g.,‬‭Aboriginals‬‭in‬‭NL,‬‭people‬‭of‬ ‭what‬‭is‬‭now‬‭India,‬‭etc.),‬‭which‬‭resulted‬‭in‬‭the‬ ‭sharing‬‭of‬‭ideas‬‭and‬‭culture.‬ ‭18.‬ ‭What‬‭was‬‭the‬‭Scientific‬‭Revolution?‬ ‭In‬‭the‬‭mid-1500s,‬‭a‬‭profound‬‭shift‬‭in‬‭scientific‬‭thinking‬‭brought‬‭the‬ ‭final‬‭break‬‭with‬‭Europe’s‬‭medieval‬‭past.‬ ‭▪‬‭The‬‭Scientific‬‭Revolution‬‭started‬‭involved‬‭the‬‭study‬‭of‬‭the‬‭natural‬ ‭world‬‭through‬‭careful‬‭observation‬‭and‬‭questioning‬‭of‬‭accepted‬  I‭deas‬‭or‬‭traditional‬‭knowledge.‬ ‭▪‬‭At‬‭the‬‭heart‬‭of‬‭this‬‭revolution‬‭in‬‭thought‬‭was‬‭a‬‭new‬‭reliance‬‭on‬ ‭empiricism‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭faith.‬ ‭Empiricism‬‭–‬‭the‬‭theory‬‭that‬‭knowledge‬‭can‬‭and‬‭should‬‭be‬‭gained‬ ‭from‬‭sensory‬‭observation‬‭through‬‭the‬‭use‬‭of‬‭experimentation.‬ ‭19.‬ ‭Name‬‭a‬‭discovery‬‭of‬‭each‬‭of‬‭the‬‭following:‬‭Copernicus,‬ ‭Brahe,‬‭Kelper,‬‭Galileo,‬‭Bacon,‬‭Descartes,‬‭Boyle‬‭and‬‭Newton‬ ‭ opernicus-‬‭In‬‭1543,‬‭he‬‭proposed‬‭a‬‭heliocentric‬‭theory,‬‭or‬‭sun-centered,‬ C ‭model‬‭of‬‭the‬‭solar‬‭system.‬ ‭Brahe-‬‭Careful‬‭observations‬‭of‬‭the‬‭planets‬‭over‬‭years‬‭he‬‭supported‬ ‭Copernicus,‬‭but‬‭he‬‭couldn’t‬‭explain‬‭it‬‭mathematically.‬ ‭Kelper-‬‭Used‬‭Brahe’s‬‭data‬‭to‬‭calculate‬‭the‬‭orbits‬‭of‬‭the‬‭planets.Kepler‬ ‭found‬‭that‬‭the‬‭planets‬‭don’t‬‭move‬‭in‬‭perfect‬‭circles‬‭as‬‭earlier‬‭believed,‬‭but‬ ‭their‬‭motion‬‭is‬‭governed‬‭by‬‭mathematical‬‭laws.‬ ‭Galileo-‬‭Built‬‭a‬‭telescope‬‭and‬ ‭observed‬‭several‬‭moons‬‭in‬‭orbit‬‭around‬‭Jupiter.‬ ‭Bacon-‬‭Challenged‬‭medieval‬‭scholarship‬‭that‬‭sought‬‭only‬‭to‬‭make‬‭the‬ ‭world‬‭fit‬‭into‬‭the‬‭teachings‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Church.‬‭Scientific‬‭method‬‭(step-by-step)‬ ‭Descartes-‬‭Challenged‬‭medieval‬‭scholarship‬‭that‬‭sought‬‭only‬‭to‬‭make‬‭the‬ ‭world‬‭fit‬‭into‬‭the‬‭teachings‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Church.‬‭Emphasized‬‭human‬‭reasoning‬‭as‬ ‭the‬‭best‬‭road‬‭to‬‭understanding.‬ ‭Boyle-‬ ‭ ‬‭explained‬‭that‬‭all‬‭matter‬‭is‬‭composed‬‭of‬‭tiny‬ ‭particles‬‭that‬‭behave‬‭in‬‭knowable‬‭ways‬ ‭ ‬‭defined‬‭the‬‭difference‬‭between‬‭individual‬‭elements‬ ‭and‬‭compounds‬ ‭ ‬‭explained‬‭the‬‭effect‬‭of‬‭temperature‬‭and‬‭pressure‬‭on‬ ‭the‬‭volume‬‭of‬‭gases‬‭(Boyle’s‬‭Law)‬ ‭ ewton-‬‭Theorized‬‭that‬‭gravity‬‭was‬‭the‬‭force‬ N ‭that‬‭controls‬‭the‬‭movements‬‭of‬‭the‬‭planets.‬ ‭ ‬‭He‬‭believed‬‭that‬‭all‬‭motion‬‭in‬‭the‬‭universe‬‭can‬ ‭ e‬‭measured‬‭and‬‭described‬‭mathematically.‬ b ‭ ‬‭He‬‭contributed‬‭to‬‭the‬‭development‬‭of‬‭calculus,‬ ‭a‬‭branch‬‭of‬‭mathematics,‬‭to‬‭help‬‭explain‬‭his‬ ‭laws.‬