Unit 2, Ancient Greece & Other Classical Civilizations (PDF)

 2000 B.C.–A.D. ​700 ​​ New Directions in Government and Society ChapterClassical 5 ​ Greece2000 ​ B.C.–300 B.C. ​ 120 ​ VIDEODelphi ​ ​...

 2000 B.C.–A.D. ​700 ​​ New Directions in Government and Society ChapterClassical 5 ​ Greece2000 ​ B.C.–300 B.C. ​ 120 ​ VIDEODelphi ​ ​ 121 ​ 1 Cultures of the Mountains and the Sea ​ 123 ​ 2 Warring City-States ​ 127 ​ 3 Democracy and Greece’s Golden Age ​ 134 ​ 4 Alexander’s Empire ​ 142 ​ 5 The Spread of Hellenistic Culture ​ 146 ​ Chapter 5 Assessment ​ 150 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Comparing and Contrasting ​ 151 SK1 ​ MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS ​ Greece ​ Ancient 151 MC1 ​ ChapterAncient 6 ​ Rome and Early Christianity 500 B.C.​ –A.D. 500 1​ 52 ​ Roman fresco, Pompeii, Italy ​ VIDEOAncient ​ Rome: The Mobile Society ​ 153 ​ (page 167) ​ 1 The Roman Republic ​​ 155 ​ 2 The Roman Empire ​​ 160 ​ 3 The Rise of Christianity ​​ 168 ​ 4 The Fall of the Roman Empire ​​ 173 ​ 5 Rome and the Roots of Western Civilization ​​ 178 ​ Chapter 6 Assessment ​ 184 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Evaluating the Validity of Sources ​ 185 SK1 ​ MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS ​ Engineering an Empire ​ 185 MC1 ​ Rome: ChapterIndia 7 ​ and China Establish Empires 400 B.C.​ –A.D. 550 ​ 186 ​ VIDEOChina's ​ Shortest Dynasty ​ 187 ​ 1 India’s First Empires ​​ 189 ​ 2 Trade Spreads Indian Religions and Culture ​​ 193 ​ 3 Han Emperors in China ​​ 200 ​ Chapter 7 Assessment ​ 208 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Interpreting Thematic Maps ​ 209 SK1 ​ ChapterAfrican 8 ​ Civilizations 1500​ B.C.–A.D. 700 ​ 210 ​ Asoka’s lions (page 190) ​ 1 Diverse Societies in Africa ​​ 213 ​ 2 Migration ​​ CASE STUDY: Bantu-Speaking Peoples ​ 220 ​ 3 The Kingdom of Aksum ​​ 225 ​ Chapter 8 Assessment ​ 230 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Drawing Inferences ​ 231 SK1 ​ ChapterThe 9 ​Americas: A Separate World 40,000​ B.C.–A.D. 700 ​232 ​ VIDEOThe​ Nazca Lines ​ 233 ​ 1 The Earliest Americans ​​ 235 ​ 2 Early Mesoamerican Civilizations ​​ 240 ​ 3 Early Civilizations of the Andes ​​ 246 ​ Chapter 9 Assessment ​ 250 ​ End-of-Chapter Skill Activity: Analyzing Points of View ​ 251 SK1 ​ Kuba mask, Africa (page 224) ​ UNIT 2 REVIEW COMPARING AND CONTRASTING: Classical Ages ​ 252 ​ ix ​ 118 ​  This painting of Athens shows why the ​ Greeks called the main district of ​ government and religious buildings an ​ acropolis, meaning city at the top. Such ​ buildings were constructed in the highest, ​ most easily defended part of the city. ​ Classical Ages ​ In Unit 2, you will learn that Greece had a classical age, a time of ​ great cultural achievement that left an enduring legacy. At the end of the unit, you will have a chance to compare and contrast Greece’s ​ classical age with several others. (See pages 252–257.) ​ 119 ​  Classical Greece, ​ 2000 B.C.–300 B.C. ​ Essential Question ​ Previewing Themes ​ What impact has ancient Greece had on ​ the modern world? ​ POWER AND AUTHORITY In the Greek city-state of Athens, a new form of ​​ government developed—democracy—in which citizens exercised power. ​ Texas Essential Knowledge ​ Geography What geographic factors might have confined democracy ​​ and Skills (TEKS) ​ largely to Athens? ​ 1B, 3A, 16A, 19B, 20A, 21B, 25B, 26A, 26C, 27A, 29F ​ SECTIONCultures 1 of the Mountains ​ CULTURAL INTERACTION Alexander the Great spread Greek culture ​​ and the Sea ​ throughout much of Asia. Greek, Egyptian, and Asian cultures then blended to ​ Main Idea The roots of Greek​​ create Hellenistic culture. ​ culture are based on interaction of the Mycenaean, Minoan, and Dorian cultures. Geography ​ Why might the sea have been important to the spread of ​​ Greek​culture? ​ SECTIONWarring 2 City-States ​ Main Idea The growth of city-states​EMPIRE ​ BUILDING Athens assumed control of a defense league and eventually ​​ in Greece led to the development of built ​ it into an empire. Later, Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and ​ several political systems, including ​ democracy. ​ beyond to create a vast new empire of his own. ​ SECTIONDemocracy 3 and ​ Geography What geographic features might have strengthened the Macedonian ​​ Greece's Golden age ​ desire to build an empire to the south and east? ​ Main Idea Democratic principles​​ and classical culture flourished during ​ Greece's golden age. ​ SECTIONAlexander's 4 Empire ​ Main Idea Alexander the Great​​ conquered Persia and Egypt and ​ extended his empire to the Indus River in ​ northwest India. ​ SECTIONThe 5 Spread​ of Hellenistic Culture ​ Main Idea Hellenistic culture, a​​ blend of Greek and other influences, ​ flourished throughout Greece, Egypt, ​ and Asia. ​ 120 ​ 121 ​  What does this art tell ​ you about Greek culture? ​ When you think of ancient Greece, what is the first thing that ​ comes to mind? You can learn a lot about a culture from its ​ works of art and literature, as well as from the statements of its ​ leaders, philosophers, and historians. Look at these Greek ​ works of art and read the quotations. ​ “As an oak tree falls on the hillside ​ crushing all that lies beneath, so ​ Theseus. He presses out the life, the ​ brute’s savage life, and now it lies ​ dead.” ​ EDITH HAMILTON, “Theseus, ” ​Mythology ​ This plate shows Theseus, the greatest ​ hero of Athens, killing the mythological ​ beast the Minotaur. ​ This stone relief panel of ​ Democracy crowning Athens was ​ placed in the marketplace, where ​ citizens could see it daily. ​ “Our constitution is called a ​ democracy because power is in ​ The Greeks often adorned ​ the hands not of a minority but ​ their public buildings with ​ of the whole people.” graceful sculptures of gods ​ PERICLES, an Athenian statesman ​ and goddesses. ​ “For we are lovers of ​ the beautiful in our tastes.” ​ THUCYDIDES, a historian ​ EXAMINING the ISSUES ​ What does the relief panel suggest about the role of democracy ​ in Greek society? ​ Why might the Greeks decorate pottery with a heroic scene? ​ Why might the Greeks place statues in and around their public ​ buildings? Were the statues realistic or artistic ideals? ​ Break into small groups and discuss what these artworks suggest ​ about ancient Greek culture. Also discuss what the quotations tell ​ you about the culture and its ideals. As you read about ancient ​ 122 Chapter 5 ​​ Greece, think about how its culture influenced later civilizations. ​  1​ Cultures of the ​ TEKS 1B, 16B ​ Mountains and the Sea ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ CULTURAL INTERACTION TheThe ​​ of much of Western ​ Mycenaean ​ Homer ​ seeds roots of Greek culture are based ​ cultural heritage were planted ​ Trojan War​ epic ​ on interaction of the Mycenaean, ​ during this time period. ​ Dorian ​ myth ​ Minoan, and Dorian cultures. ​ SETTING THE STAGE In ancient times, Greece was not a united country. It was ​​ a collection of separate lands where Greek-speaking people lived. By 3000 B.C.,​​ ​ the Minoans lived on the large Greek island of Crete. The Minoans created an ​ elegant civilization that had great power in the Mediterranean world. At the same ​ time, people from the plains along the Black Sea and Anatolia migrated and ​ settled in mainland Greece. ​ Geography Shapes Greek Life ​ Ancient Greece consisted mainly of a mountainous peninsula jutting out into ​ the Mediterranean Sea. It also included about 2,000 islands in the Aegean ​ (ih JEE uhn) and Ionian (eye OH nee uhn) seas. Lands on Use thetheeastern graphic organizer edge ​ of ​ online to take notes on the ​ the Aegean were also part of ancient Greece. (See the map on page 121.) roots of Greek culture. ​ The ​ region’s physical geography directly shaped Greek traditions and customs. ​ The Sea The sea shaped Greek civilization just as rivers shaped the ancient ​​ civilizations of Egypt, the Fertile Crescent, India, and China. In one sense, the ​ Greeks did not live on ​a land but ​around ​a sea. Greeks rarely had to travel more ​ than 85 miles to reach the coastline. The Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the ​ neighboring Black Sea were important transportation routes for the Greek peo- ​ ple. These seaways linked most parts of Greece. As the Greeks became skilled ​ sailors, sea travel connected Greece with other societies. Sea travel and trade ​ were also important because Greece lacked natural resources, such as timber, ​ precious metals, and usable farmland. ​ The Land Rugged mountains covered about three-fourths of ancient Greece. ​​ The mountain chains ran mainly from northwest to southeast along the Balkan ​ Peninsula. Mountains divided the land into a number of different regions. This ​ significantly influenced Greek political life. Instead of a single government, the ​ Greeks developed small, independent communities within each little valley and its surrounding mountains. Most Greeks gave their loyalty to these local communities. ​ In ancient times, the uneven terrain also made land transportation difficult. ​ Of the few roads that existed, most were little more than dirt paths. It often took ​ travelers several days to complete a journey that might take a few hours today. ​ Much of the land itself was stony, and only a small part of it was arable, or ​ suitable for farming. Tiny but fertile valleys covered about one-fourth of Greece. ​ Classical Greece 123​​  The small streams that watered these valleys were not suitable for large-scale ​ irrigation projects. With so little fertile farmland or fresh water for irrigation, ​ Greece was never able to support a large population. Historians estimate that no ​ more than a few million people lived in ancient Greece at any given time. Even this ​ small population could not expect the land to support a life of luxury. A desire for ​ more living space, grassland for raising livestock, and adequate farmland Analyzing Causesmay​ have ​ In what ways​did ​ been factors that motivated the Greeks to seek new sites for colonies. Greece’s location by the ​ The Climate Climate was the third important environmentalseainfluence on​ Greek ​ and its mountainous civilization. Greece has a varied climate, with temperatures averaging land affect its ​ 48 degrees ​ Fahrenheit in the winter and 80 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer. In ​ancient times, ​ development? these moderate temperatures supported an outdoor life for many Greek citizens. ​ Men spent much of their leisure time at outdoor public events. They met often to ​ discuss public issues, exchange news, and take an active part in civic life. ​ Mycenaean Civilization Develops ​ As Chapter 3 explained, a large wave of Indo-Europeans migrated from the ​ Eurasian steppes to Europe, India, and Southwest Asia. Some of the people who ​ settled on the Greek mainland around 2000 B.C. were later known as Mycenaeans. ​ The name came from their leading city, Mycenae (my SEE nee). ​ Mycenae was located in southern Greece on a steep, rocky ridge and surrounded ​ by a protective wall more than 20 feet thick. The fortified city of Mycenae could ​ withstand almost any attack. From Mycenae, a warrior-king ruled the surrounding ​ villages and farms. Strong rulers controlled the areas around other Mycenaean ​ cities, such as Tiryns and Athens. These kings dominated Greece from about 1600 ​ to 1100 B.C. ​ GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: ​ Interpreting Maps ​ 1. Location ​Where was the center of the ​ Mycenaean Civilization located? ​ 2. Movement ​Based on the map, how ​ did Mycenaean traders conduct most of ​ their trade? ​ 124 ​  Contact with Minoans Sometime after ​ 1500 B.C., the Mycenaeans came into con- ​ tact with the Minoan civilization. From ​ the Minoans, the Mycenaeans saw the ​ value of seaborne trade. Mycenaean trad- ​ ers soon sailed throughout the eastern ​ Mediterranean, making stops at Aegean ​ islands, coastal towns in Anatolia, and ​ ports in Syria, Egypt, Italy, and Crete. ​ The Minoans also influenced the ​ Myce naeans in other ways. Recall that ​ the Minoans had already used Egyptian ​ hieroglyphics as a model for the picto- ​ graphic writing that ultimately became ​ Greek letters. The Mycenaeans adapted ​ the Minoan writing system to the ​ Greek language and decorated vases ​ Recognizing ​ with Minoan designs. The Minoan- ​ Effects ​ influenced culture of Mycenae formed the ​ How did ​ core of Greek religious practice, art, politics, and literature. Indeed, Western ​ contact with the Minoanscivilization ​ has its roots in these two early Mediterranean civilizations. ​ affect Mycenaean ​ Greek stories ​ culture? ​ The Trojan War During the 1200s B.C., the Mycenaeans fought army’s ​ war ​​ a ten-year tell of their against Troy, a trading city in Anatolia. According to legend, acapture Greekof army the ​ besieged ​ and destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had kidnapped Helen, legendarythecity of Troy ​ wife ​ beautiful of a Greek king. ​ by hiding soldiers ​ in a hollow wooden ​ For many years, historians thought that the legendary stories told​ of the Trojan horse. War were totally fictional. However, excavations conducted 1870s by archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann suggested that the in Turkey during stories of thethe​ ​ Trojan War might have been based on real cities, people, and events. Further ​ studies conducted in the 20th century support Schliemann’s findings. Although ​ the exact nature of the Trojan War remains unclear, this attack on Troy was almost ​ certainly one of the last Mycenaean campaigns. ​ Greek Culture Declines Under the Dorians ​ Not long after the Trojan War, Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Around 1200 B.C., ​ sea raiders attacked and burned many Mycenaean cities. According to tradition, ​ a new group of people, the Dorians ​(DAWR ee uhnz), moved into the war-torn ​ countryside. The Dorians spoke a dialect of Greek and may have been distant ​ relatives of the Bronze Age Greeks. ​ The Dorians were far less advanced than the Mycenaeans. The economy ​ collapsed and trade eventually came to a standstill soon after their arrival. Most ​ important to historians, Greeks appear to have temporarily lost the art of writing ​ during the Dorian Age. No written record exists from the 400-year period between ​ 1150 and 750 B.C. As a result, little is known about this period of Greek history. ​ Epics of Homer Lacking writing, the Greeks of this time learned about their ​​ history through the spoken word. According to tradition, the greatest storyteller ​ was a blind man named Homer. ​Little is known of his personal life. Some historians ​ believe that Homer composed his epics, ​narrative poems celebrating heroic deeds, ​ sometime between 750 and 700-B.C. The Trojan War forms the backdrop for one of ​ Homer’s great epic poems, the Iliad. ​ Classical Greece 125​​  The heroes of the Iliad ​are warriors: the fierce Greek Achilles ​ (uh KIHL eez) and the courageous and noble Hector of Troy. In the ​ following dramatic excerpt, Hector’s wife begs him not to fight Achilles: ​ PRIMARY SOURCE ​ “Dear husband, ” said she, “your valour will bring you to destruction; think on ​ your infant son, and on my hapless self who ere long shall be your widow.... It ​ would be better for me, should I lose you, to lie dead and buried, for I shall have ​ nothing left to comfort me when you are gone... ” Hector answered, “Wife, I too ​ have thought upon all this, but with what face should I look upon the Trojans... ​ if I shirked battle like a coward? I cannot do so: I know nothing save to fight ​ bravely in the forefront of the Trojan host and win renown alike for my father ​ and myself. ” ​ HOMER, the ​Iliad ​(translated by Samuel Butler) ​ Hector’s response to his wife gives insight into the Greek heroic ​ ideal of arete¯ ​(ar uh TAY), meaning virtue and excellence. A Greek ​ ​ could display this ideal on the battlefield in combat or in athletic ​ contests on the playing field. ​ This is a ​ Greeks Create Myths The Greeks developed a rich set of ​mmarble yths​​,sculpture or traditional ​ sto- ​​ ries, about their gods. The works of Homer and another epic, Theogony of Polyphemus—a ​by Hesiod, ​ ​ are the source of much of Greek mythology. Through the myths, cyclops, theorGreeks one- ​ ​ sought to understand the mysteries of nature and the power ofwhoeyed monster— human passions.​ ​ appears in ​ Myths explained the changing of the seasons, for example. ​ another of ​ Greeks attributed human qualities, such as love, hate, and jealousy, Homer’s epics,to their ​ ​ the Odyssey. gods. The gods quarreled and competed with each other constantly. ​ However, ​ unlike humans, the gods lived forever. Zeus, the ruler of the gods, lived on Mount ​ Olympus with his wife, Hera. Hera was often jealous of Zeus’ relationships with ​ other women. Athena, goddess of wisdom, was Zeus’ daughter and his favorite ​ child. The Greeks thought of Athena as the guardian of cities, especially of ​ Athens, which was named in her honor. You will learn about Athens and other ​ cities in Section 2. ​ SECTION ​ 1 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. ​For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. ​​ Mycenaean ​ Trojan War ​ Dorian ​ Homer ​ epic ​ myth ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEAS ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2. Which of the cultures on 3. your ​ impact did nearness ​ 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did the physical ​ What chart do you think contributed to the ​ sea have on the ​ geography of Greece cause Greek-speaking peoples to ​ the most to Greek culture? ​ development of Greece? ​ develop separate, isolated communities? ​ Explain. ​ 4. What aspects of culture did ​7. ANALYZING CAUSES Other than the explanation offered​​ the Mycenaeans adopt from ​ in the legend, why do you think the Greeks went to war ​ the Minoans? What was the ​ with Troy? ​ Egyptian connection to these8.​ MAKING INFERENCES The Dorian period is often called​​ cultures? ​ Greece’s Dark Age. Why do you think this is so? ​ 5. Why were the epics of ​ 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION ​Write an ​​ importance to the Greeks of theexpository ​ essay ​explaining why the Greek epics and ​ Dorian period? ​ myths are fundamental ideas in Western civilizations. ​ CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING EXPLANATIONS​ ​ Many names and phrases from Greek history have been absorbed into the English language. Use library resources to find examples, such ​ as Achilles heel, Homeric, ​and ​Trojan horse. ​Write a brief ​explanation ​of each example. Then choose one of the stories in which you found a ​ term and retell it, in a simplified form, to a classmate. Use pictures that you draw or find in books or online to support your story. ​ 126 Chapter 5 ​​  2​ TEKS 1B, 20A, 21B ​ Warring City-States ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ POWER AND AUTHORITY Many ​​ Thepolitical systems in today’s ​ polis ​ tyrant ​ world growth of city-states in Greece led to ​ mirror the varied forms of ​ acropolis ​ democracy ​ the development of several politicalgovernment ​ that evolved in Greece. ​ monarchy ​ helot ​ systems, including democracy. ​ aristocracy ​ phalanx ​ oligarchy ​ Persian Wars​ SETTING THE STAGE During the Dorian period, Greek civilization experi- ​​ enced decline. However, two things changed life in Greece. First, Dorians and ​ Mycenaeans alike began to identify less with the culture of their ancestors and ​ more with the local area where they lived. Second, by the end of this period, the ​ method of governing areas had changed from tribal or clan control to more for- ​ mal governments—the city-states. ​ Rule and Order in Greek City-States ​ By 750 B.C., the city-state, or polis, ​was the fundamental political unit in ancient ​ Greece. A polis was made up of a city and its surrounding countryside, which ​ Use the graphic50 included numerous villages. Most city-states controlled between organizer and​ 500 ​ square miles of territory. They were often home to feweronline to take notes on ​ important events in the ​ resi- ​ than 10,000 dents. At the agora, or marketplace, or on a fortified hilltop an acropolis calledof Athens development and ​ ​ (uh KRAHP uh lihs), citizens gathered to discuss city government. Sparta. ​ ​ Greek Political Structures Greek city-states had many different forms of ​ government. (See the chart on page 128.) In some, a single person, called a ​ king, ruled in a government called a monarchy. ​Others adopted an ​aristocracy ​ (AR ih STAHK ruh see), a government ruled by a small group of noble, land- ​ owning families. These very rich families often gained political power after ​ serving in a king’s military cavalry. Later, as trade expanded, a new class of ​ wealthy merchants and artisans emerged in some cities. When these groups ​ became dissatisfied with aristocratic rule, they sometimes took power or shared ​ it with the nobility. They formed an oligarchy, ​a government ruled by a few ​ powerful people. ​ Tyrants Seize Power In many city-states, repeated clashes occurred between ​​ rulers and the common people. Powerful individuals, usually nobles or other ​ wealthy citizens, sometimes seized control of the government by appealing to ​ the common people for support. These rulers were called tyrants. ​Unlike today, ​ tyrants generally were not considered harsh and cruel. Rather, they were looked ​ upon as leaders who would work for the interests of the ordinary people. Once ​ in power, for example, tyrants often set up building programs to provide jobs and ​ housing for their supporters. ​ Classical Greece 127​​  Athens Builds a Limited Democracy ​ The idea of representative government also began to take root in some city-states, ​ particularly Athens. Like other city-states, Athens went through power struggles ​ between rich and poor. However, Athenians avoided major political upheavals by ​ making timely reforms. Athenian reformers moved toward democracy, ​rule by the ​ people. In Athens, citizens participated directly in political decision making. ​ Building Democracy The first step toward democracy came when​ a nobleman ​​ Vocabulary named Draco took power. In 621 B.C., Draco developed a legal code The legal based​ on the ​ code prepared by Draco idea that all Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law. was so harshcode Draco’s ​ dealt ​ very harshly with criminals, making death the punishment for that thepractically word draconian ​ every ​ has come to mean ​ crime. It also upheld such practices as debt slavery, in which“extreme debtorscruelty orworked ​ as ​ slaves to repay their debts. ​ severity.” ​ More far-reaching democratic reforms were introduced by Solon (SO luhn), ​ who came to power in 594 B.C. Stating that no citizen should own another citizen, ​ Solon outlawed debt slavery. He organized all Athenian citizens into four social ​ classes according to wealth. Only members of the top three classes could hold ​ political office. However, all citizens, regardless of class, could participate in the ​ Athenian assembly. Solon also introduced the legal concept that any citizen could ​ bring charges against wrongdoers. ​ Around 500 B.C., the Athenian leader Cleisthenes (KLYS thuh NEEZ) introduced ​ further reforms. He broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten ​ groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. He also increased the ​ power of the assembly by allowing all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage. Cleisthenes then created the Council of Five Hundred. This body proposed laws and ​ counseled the assembly. Council members were chosen by lot, or at random. ​ The reforms of Cleisthenes allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited ​ democracy. However, citizenship was restricted to a relatively small number of ​ Athenians. Only free adult males were considered citizens. Women, Contrastingslaves, ​ and ​ for eigners were excluded from citizenship and had few rights. How ​ is Athenian ​ Many of the foreigners living in Athens belonged to a categorydemocracyof different ​ noncitizens ​ from modern American ​ known as metics, ​who made up roughly half of the free population. democracy? ​ ​ M etics ​were ​ immigrants or descendants of immigrants. Some metic ​families had lived in Athens ​ for generations and gained great wealth but still did not qualify as citizens. They ​ bore many responsibilities of citizenship, such as having to perform military ser- ​ vice and pay extra taxes, but were not allowed to serve in the assembly or on juries. ​ Forms of Government ​ Monarchy ​ Aristocracy ​ Oligarchy ​ Direct Democracy ​ State ruled by a king ​ State ruled by nobility ​ State ruled by a small ​ State ruled by its ​ Rule is hereditary ​ Rule is hereditary and ​ group of citizens ​ citizens ​ Some rulers claim ​ based on family ties, ​ Rule is based on wealth ​Rule is based on ​ divine right ​ social rank, wealth ​ or ability ​ citizenship ​ Practiced in Mycenae ​ Social status and wealth ​Ruling group controls ​ Majority rule decides vote ​ by 2000 B.C. ​​ support rulers’ authority military ​ ​ Practiced in Athens by ​ Practiced in Athens prior Practiced ​ in Sparta by 500 about B.C. ​​ 500 B.C. ​​ to 594 B.C. ​​ SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts ​ 1. Summarizing ​Which forms of government feature rule based on wealth or property ownership? ​ 2. Clarifying ​In which form of government do citizens have the most power? ​ 128 Chapter 5 ​​  A Husband’s Advice ​ and make the beds; adding, if she trained ​ herself In this excerpt from The Economist, ​the Greek historian ​ in exercise of this sort she would ​ Xenophon describes how a husband might respondenjoy ​ her food, grow vigorous in health, ​ to his wife’s question about how she could remain ​and her complexion would in very truth ​ attractive: ​ be lovelier. The very look and aspect of ​ the wife. ​ XENOPHON, The Economist, ​Book 10 ​ (Translated by ​ I counseled her to oversee the baking woman as she ​ H. G. Dakyns) ​ made the bread; to stand beside the housekeeper ​ as she measured out her stores; to go on tours of ​ inspection to see if all things were in order as theyDOCUMENT-BASED ​ QUESTIONS ​ should be. For, as it seemed to me, this would at ​ 1. Making Inferences ​What is the husband​​ once be walking exercise and supervision. And, as ansuggesting ​ in his advice to his wife? ​ excellent gymnastic, I recommended her to knead2. ​ Synthesizing ​How is the husband’s advice​​ the dough and roll the paste; to shake the coverlets ​representative of Athenian attitudes toward ​ women? ​ Metics did have access to the courts, though, and could prosecute other people. ​ Citizenship was very rarely granted to metics. ​ Athenian Education For the most part, only the sons of wealthy families received ​​ formal education. Schooling began around the age of seven and largely prepared ​ boys to be good citizens. They studied reading, grammar, poetry, history, math- ​ ematics, and music. Because citizens were expected to debate issues in the assem- ​ bly, boys also received training in logic and public speaking. And since the Greeks ​ believed that it was important to train and develop the body, part of each day ​ was spent in athletic activities. When they got older, boys went to military school ​ to help them prepare for another important duty of citizenship—defending Athens. ​ Athenian girls did not attend school. Rather, they were educated at home by ​ their mothers and other female members of the household. They learned about ​ child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, managing the household, and other ​ skills that helped them become good wives and mothers. Some women were able ​ to take their education farther and learned to read and write. A few even became ​ accomplished writers. Even so, most women had very little to do with Athenian ​ life outside the boundaries of family and home. ​ Sparta Builds a Military State ​ Located in the southern part of Greece known as the Peloponnesus ​ (PEHL uh puh NEE sus), Sparta was nearly cut off from the rest of Greece by the ​ Gulf of Corinth. (See the map on page 121.) In outlook and values, Sparta con- ​ trasted sharply with the other city-states, Athens in particular. Instead of a democ- ​ racy, Sparta built a military state. ​ Sparta Dominates Messenians Around 725 B.C., Sparta conquered the neighbor- ​ ing region of Messenia and took over the land. The Messenians became helots ​ (HEHL uhts), peasants forced to stay on the land they worked. Each year, the ​ Spartans demanded half of the helots’ crops. In about 650 B.C., the Messenians, ​ resentful of the Spartans’ harsh rule, revolted. The Spartans, who were outnum- ​ bered eight to one, just barely put down the revolt. Shocked at their vulnerability, ​ they dedicated themselves to making Sparta a strong city-state. ​ Classical Greece 129​​  Festivals and Sports ​ The ancient Greeks believed that strong healthy citizens helped strengthen ​ the city-state. They often included sporting events in the festivals they ​ held to honor their gods. The most famous sports festival was the Olympic ​ games, held every four years. Records of Olympics winners started in 776 ​ B.C. At first, the festival lasted only one day and had only one contest, a race ​ called the stade. Later, many other events were added, including a long- ​ distance race, wrestling, the long jump, the javelin, and the discus throw. ​ The Olympics was expanded to five days in 472 B.C. ​​ Women’s Sports ​ Women had their own sports festival in ​ ancient Greece. It was the festival devoted to ​ Hera, the wife of Zeus. Like the Olympics, the ​ Hera festival was held every four years. One ​ of the main events was a foot race ​ for unmarried women. ​ Discus Thrower ​ Ancient athletes, such as this discus thrower, ​ would be considered amateurs today because ​ they received no pay for competing. However, they ​ trained rigorously for months at a time. Victors ​ were given lavish gifts and were hailed as heroes. ​ Many athletes competed full-time. ​ Mount Olympus ​ The ancient Olympics honored Zeus, the father of ​ all Greek gods and goddesses. According to legend, ​ Zeus hurled a thunderbolt from Mount Olympus at ​ a spot in rural Greece. An altar for Zeus was built on ​ that spot. Eventually, many buildings were erected ​ around the altar. This area was called Olympia and ​ became the site for the Olympic games. ​ SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources ​ 1. Evaluating Decisions ​Do you think it was a good decision for the​​ Greeks to add more sporting events to the Olympics? Explain. ​ 2. Comparing and Contrasting ​How are today’s Olympics similar to​​ and different from the Olympics in ancient Greece? ​ 130 Chapter 5 ​​  Sparta’s Government and Society Spartan government had several branches. An ​​ assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials and voted ​ on major issues. The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed ​ laws on which the assembly voted. Five elected officials carried out the laws ​ passed by the assembly. These men also controlled education and prosecuted court ​ cases. In addition, two kings ruled over Sparta’s military forces. ​ The Spartan social order consisted of several groups. The first were citizens ​ descended from the original inhabitants of the region. This group included the ​ ruling families who owned the land. A second group, noncitizens who were free, ​ worked in commerce and industry. The helots, at the bottom of Spartan society, ​ were little better than slaves. They worked in the fields or as house servants. ​ Spartan Daily Life From around 600 until 371 B.C., Sparta had the most powerful ​​ army in Greece. However, the Spartan people paid a high price for their military ​ supremacy. All forms of individual expression were discouraged. As a result, ​ Spartans did not value the arts, literature, or other artistic and intellectual pursuits. ​ Comparing ​ Spartans valued duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty, ​ How would you ​ and learning. ​ compare the ideals ​ Since men were expected to serve in the army until the age of 60, their daily life ​ of Spartan and ​ Athenian societies? ​ centered on military training. Boys left home when they were 7 and moved into ​ army barracks, where they stayed until they reached the age of 30. They spent their ​ days marching, exercising, and fighting. They undertook these activities in all ​ weathers, wearing only light tunics and no shoes. At night, they slept without ​ blankets on hard benches. Their daily diet consisted of little more than a bowl of ​ coarse black porridge. Those who were not satisfied were encouraged to steal food. ​ Such training produced tough, resourceful soldiers. ​ Spartan girls also led hardy lives. They received some military training, and they ​ also ran, wrestled, and played sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to ​ Sparta above everything—even love of family. A legend says that Spartan women ​ told husbands and sons going to war to “come back with ​your shield or ​on ​it.” As ​ adults, Spartan women had considerable freedom, especially in running the family ​ estates when their husbands were on active military service. Such freedom sur- ​ prised men from other Greek city-states. This was particularly true of Athens, ​ where women were expected to remain out of sight and quietly raise children. ​ The Persian Wars ​ Danger of a helot revolt led Sparta to become a military state. Struggles between ​ rich and poor led Athens to become a democracy. The greatest danger of all—inva- ​ sion by Persian armies—moved Sparta and Athens alike to their greatest glory. ​ A New Kind of Army Emerges During the Dorian Age, only the rich could afford ​​ bronze spears, shields, breastplates, and chariots. Thus, only the rich served in ​ armies. Iron later replaced bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Harder than ​ bronze, iron was more common and therefore cheaper. Soon, ordinary citizens ​ could afford to arm and defend themselves. The shift from bronze to iron weapons ​ made possible a new kind of army composed not only of the rich but also of ​ merchants, artisans, and small landowners. The foot soldiers of this army, called ​ hoplites, stood side by side, each holding a spear in one hand and a shield in ​ the other. This fearsome formation, or phalanx ​(FAY LANGKS), became the most ​ powerful fighting force in the ancient world. ​ Battle at Marathon The Persian ​ Wars, ​between Greece and the Persian Empire, ​ began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. (See the map on page 132.) The Greeks ​ had long been settled there, but around 546 B.C., the Persians conquered the area. ​ Classical Greece 131​​  When Ionian Greeks revolted, Athens sent ships and soldiers to their aid. The Persian ​ king Darius the Great defeated the rebels and then vowed to destroy Athens in revenge. In 490 B.C., a Persian fleet carried 25,000 men across the Aegean Sea and landed ​ northeast of Athens on a plain called Marathon. There, 10,000 Athenians, neatly ​ arranged in phalanxes, waited for them. Vastly outnumbered, the Greek soldiers ​ charged. The Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of ​ land combat, were no match for the disciplined Greek phalanx. After several hours, ​ the Persians fled the battlefield. The Persians lost more than 6,000 men. In contrast, ​ Athenian casualties numbered fewer than 200. ​ Pheidippides Brings News Though the Athenians won the battle, their city now ​​ stood defenseless. According to tradition, army leaders chose a young runner named ​ Pheidippides (fy DIP uh DEEZ) to race back to Athens. He brought news of the ​ Persian defeat so that Athenians would not give up the city without a fight. Dashing ​ the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens, Pheidippides delivered his message, ​ “Rejoice, we conquer.” He then collapsed and died. Moving rapidly from Marathon, ​ the Greek army arrived in Athens not long after. When the Persians sailed into the ​ harbor, they found the city heavily defended. They quickly put to sea in retreat. ​ Thermopylae and Salamis Ten years later, in 480 B.C., Darius the Great’s son ​​ and successor, Xerxes (ZURK seez), assembled an enormous invasion force to ​ crush Athens. The Greeks were badly divided. Some city-states agreed to fight the ​ Persians. Others thought it wiser to let ​ Xerxes destroy Athens and return home. ​ Some Greeks even fought on the Persian ​ side. Consequently, Xerxes’ army met ​ no resistance as it marched down the ​ eastern coast of Greece. ​ When Xerxes came to a nar- ​ row mountain pass at Thermopylae ​ (thur MAHP uh lee), 7,000 Greeks, ​ including 300 Spartans, blocked his ​ way. Xerxes assumed that his troops ​ would easily push the Greeks aside. ​ However, he underestimated their fight- ​ ing ability. The Greeks stopped the ​ Persian advance for three days. Only a ​ traitor’s informing the Persians about a ​ secret path around the pass ended their ​ brave stand. Fearing defeat, the Spartans ​ held the Persians back while the other ​ Greek forces retreated. The Spartans’ ​ valiant sacrifice—all were killed— ​ made a great impression on all Greeks. ​ Meanwhile, the Athenians debated ​ how best to defend their city. ​ Themistocles, an Athenian leader, con- ​ vinced them to evacuate the city and ​ fight at sea. They positioned their fleet ​ GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps ​ in a narrow channel near the island of ​ 1. Movement ​By what routes did the Persians choose to attack​​ Greece? Explain why. ​ Salamis (SAL uh mihs), a few miles ​ southwest 2. Location ​Where did most of the battles of the Persian Wars​​ of Athens. After setting fire ​ occur? How might their citizens have been affected? ​ to Athens, Xerxes sent his warships ​ to block both ends of the channel. ​ 132 Chapter 5 ​​  However, the channel was very narrow, and the Persian ​ ships had difficulty turning. Smaller Greek ships armed ​ with battering rams attacked, puncturing the hulls of ​ many Persian warships. Xerxes watched in horror as ​ more than one-third of his fleet sank. He faced another ​ defeat in 479 B.C., when the Greeks crushed the Persian ​ army at the Battle of Plataea (pluh TEE uh). After this ​ major setback, the Persians were always on the defensive. ​ The following year, several Greek city-states formed ​ an alliance called the Delian (dEE lee uhn) League. (The ​ alliance took its name from delos, the island in the Aegean ​ Sea where it had its headquarters.) League members contin- ​ ued to press the war against the Persians for several more ​ years. In time, they drove the Persians from the territories ​ surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks. Modern​ Marathons ​ Consequences of the Persian Wars With the ​ Persian Pheidippides’ threat ​ heroic act in the Persian ​ ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense Warsofinspired con- officials ​ at the first ​ fidence and freedom. Athens, in particular, baskedmodern in ​ Olympic Games—held in ​ Athens in 1896—to add a 26-mile ​ the glory of the Persian defeat. during the 470s, Athens ​ competition. The course ​ race to their emerged as the leader of the delian League, which had of the ​ ran from Marathon to the ​ race grown to some 200 city-states. Soon thereafter, Athens ​ Olympic Stadium in Athens. ​ began to use its power to control the other league Today, members.most of ​ the world’s major ​ It moved the league headquarters to Athens, andcities usedstage mili- marathons ​ every year. ​ Many, like the tary force against members that challenged its authority. In one ​ held in Boston, ​ attract wheelchair competitors. ​ Recognizing ​ time, these city-states became little more than provinces ​ Effects ​ of a vast Athenian empire. The prestige of victory over the ​ How did the ​ Persians and the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage ​ Persian Wars affect the ​ INTERNET ​ACTIVITY ​ Go online to ​ Greek people, especially ​for a dazzling burst of creativity in Athens. The city createwas an illustrated history of the ​ the Athenians? ​ entering its brief golden age. ​ marathon. ​ SECTION ​ 2 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. ​ For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.​ ​ polis ​ ​acropolis ​ ​monarchy ​ ​aristocracy ​ ​oligarchy ​ ​tyrant ​ ​democracy ​ ​metic ​ ​helot ​ ​phalanx ​ ​Persian Wars ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEAS ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2.Which ​ of the events on your 3. How ​ does an aristocracy differ7.​ CONTRASTING How ​was living in Athens different from ​ time line do you think was thefrom ​ an oligarchy? ​ living in Sparta? ​ most important for life today? ​​ 4. What contributions did Solon 8. ​ MAKING INFERENCES The introduction ​ of cheap iron ​ Explain. ​ and Cleisthenes make to the ​ weapons meant that ordinary Greek citizens could arm ​ Athens ​ development of Athenian ​ themselves. How might the ability to own weapons ​ democracy? ​ change the outlook of ordinary citizens? ​ Draco's ​ Code ​ 5.How ​ did Athens benefit from ​9. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why were​ the Spartan soldiers ​ victory in the Persian Wars? ​ willing to sacrifice themselves at Thermopylae? ​ Conquest ​ 6.What ​ ​ WRITING ACTIVITY POWER ANDWrite were the characteristics10. a brief AUTHORITY ​​ ​ of Messenia ​ of oligarchy and democracy in ​politicalmonologue ​ about​ democracy from an ​ Sparta ​ Greece? ​ Athenian slave’s point of view. ​ MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY PREPARING AN ORAL REPORT ​ ​ What were the rights and responsibilities of Athenian citizens and noncitizens, such as the metics, ​in civic ​ participation? Use the Internet to find more information on how rights and responsibilities in civic participation ​ varied according to one's status in Athenian society. Present your findings to the class in a brief oral report. ​ Classical Greece 133​ ​  3​ TEKS 3A, 20A, 26A, 27A ​ Democracy and Greece’s ​ Golden Age ​ MAIN IDEA ​ WHY IT MATTERS NOW ​ TERMS & NAMES ​ CULTURAL INTERACTION ​its height, Greece set lasting ​ direct democracy Peloponnesian At ​ War ​ Democratic principles and classicalstandards ​ in art, politics, literature, classical ​ art ​ philosopher ​ culture flourished during Greece’s ​and philosophy that are still ​ tragedy ​ Socrates ​ golden age. ​ influential today. ​ comedy ​ Plato ​ Aristotle ​ SETTING THE STAGE ​ to 50 years (from 477 toAthens For close 431 B.C. ​ ), ​ experienced a growth in intellectual and artistic learning. This period is often ​ called the Golden Age of Athens. During this golden age, drama, sculpture, poetry, ​ philosophy, architecture, and science all reached new heights. The artistic and liter- ary legacies of the time continue to inspire and instruct people around the world. ​ Pericles’ Plan for Athens ​ A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens during much of its golden ​ age. Honest and fair, Pericles held onto popular support for 32 years. He was a ​ Use the graphic organizer ​ skillful politician, an inspiring speaker, and a respected general. He so dominated ​ online to take notes on ​ the life of Athens from 461 to 429 B.C. ​that this period often is called the Age of ​ Pericles' goals for Athens. ​ Pericles. He had three goals: (1) to strengthen Athenian democracy, (2) to hold ​ and strengthen the empire, and (3) to glorify Athens. ​ Stronger Democracy ​ To strengthen democracy, Pericles increased the number ​ of public officials who were paid salaries. Earlier in Athens, most positions ​ in public office were unpaid. Thus, only wealthier Athenian citizens could ​ Athenian and United States Democracy ​ Athenian Democracy ​ Both ​ U.S. Democracy ​ Citizens: male; 18 years old; ​ Political power ​ Citizens: born in United ​ born of citizen parents ​ exercised by citizens ​ States or completed ​ Laws voted on and ​ Three branches of ​ citizenship process ​ proposed directly by ​ government ​ Representatives elected to ​ assembly of all citizens ​ propose and vote on laws ​ Legislative branch ​ Leader chosen by lot ​ passes laws ​ Elected president ​ Executive branch composed ​ Executive branch ​ Executive branch made up of ​ of a council of 500 men ​ carries out laws ​ elected and appointed officials ​ Juries varied in size ​ Judicial branch ​ Juries composed of 12 jurors ​ No attorneys; no appeals; ​ conducts trials ​ Defendants and plaintiffs have ​ one-day trials ​ with paid jurors ​ attorneys; long appeals process ​ 134 Chapter 5 ​​  afford to hold public office. Now even the poorest citizen could serve if elected or ​ chosen by lot. Consequently, Athens had more citizens engaged in self-government ​ than any other city-state in Greece. This reform made Athens one of the most demo- cratic governments in history. ​ The introduction of direct democracy,​ ​ a form of government in which citizens ​ rule directly and not through representatives, was an important legacy of Periclean ​ Athens. Few other city-states practiced this style of government. In Athens, male ​ citizens who served in the assembly established all the important government poli- ​ cies that affected the polis. In a speech honoring the Athenian war dead, Pericles ​ expressed his great pride in Athenian democracy: ​ PRIMARY SOURCE ​ analyzing ​ Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of ​ Primary sourcesthe ​ whole people. When it is a question of settling private disputes, everyone is equal before ​ How accurate do ​ the law; when it is a question of putting one person before another in positions of public ​ you consider Pericles’ ​ responsibility, what counts is not membership in a particular class, but the actual ability which ​ statement that Athenianthe​ man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to the state, is kept in ​ democracy was in the ​ political obscurity because of poverty. ​ hands of “the whole ​ people“? ​ PERICLES, “The Funeral Oration, ” from Thucydides, ​The Peloponnesian War ​ Athenian EmpireAfter ​the defeat of the Persians, Athens ​ helped organize the Delian League. In time, Athens took ​ over leadership of the league and dominated all the city- ​ states in it. Pericles used the money from the league’s ​ treas ury to make the Athenian navy the strongest in the ​ Mediterranean. A strong navy was important because it ​ helped Athens strengthen the safety of its empire. Prosperity ​ depended on gaining access to the surrounding waterways. ​ Athens needed overseas trade to obtain supplies of grain ​ and other raw materials. ​ Athenian military might allowed Pericles to treat other ​ members of the Delian League as part of the empire. Some ​ cities in the Peloponnesus, however, resisted Athens and ​ formed their own alliances. As you will read later in this ​ section, Sparta in particular was at odds with Athens.Pericles ​ 495–429 B.C. ​​ Glorifying Athens ​ also used money fromPericles Pericles the ​came from a rich and high- ​ Delian League to beautify Athens. Without theranking noble ​family. His aristocratic ​ league’s approval, he persuaded the Athenian assembly tofathervote had led the huge ​ Athenian assembly ​ and fought at the Battle of Salamis in the ​ sums of the league’s money to buy gold, ivory, and marble. ​ Persian Wars. His mother was the niece ​ Still more money went to pay the artists, architects, and ​the Athenian noble who ​ of Cleisthenes, workers who used these materials. ​ had introduced important democratic ​ reforms. ​ Glorious Art and Architecture ​ Pericles was well known for his political ​ achievements as leader of Athens. Pericles ​ Pericles’ goal was to have the greatest Greek artists the man,and ​ was harder to know. ​ however, architects create magnificent sculptures and buildings One historian​wrote: ​ “[He]one to glorify Athens. At the center of his plan was no doubt, of ​ was a lonely man.... He ​ architecture’s noblest works—the Parthenon. ​ had no friend... [and] he only went out ​ [of his home] for official business. ” ​ Architecture and Sculpture ​ The Parthenon, a masterpiece ​ of architectural design and craftsmanship, was not unique ​ in style. Rather, Greek architects constructed the 23,000- RESEARCH WEB​ LINKS ​ Go online for ​ square-foot building in the traditional style thatmore hadonbeen ​ ​ Pericles. used to create Greek temples for 200 years. This temple, ​ Classical Greece 135 ​​  built to honor Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the protector of Athens, con- ​ tained examples of Greek art that set standards for future generations of artists ​ around the world. Pericles entrusted much of the work on the Parthenon to the ​ sculptor Phidias (FIDH ee uhs). Within the temple, Phidias crafted a giant statue ​ of Athena that not only contained such precious materials as gold and ivory, but ​ also stood over 30 feet tall. ​ Phidias and other sculptors created figures that were graceful, strong, and ​ perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither joy nor anger, only serenity. Greek ​ sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion. ​ They wanted to portray ideal beauty, not realism. Their values of harmony, order, ​ balance, and proportion became the standard of what is called classical art. ​Over ​ time, these works have transcended the culture in which they were created. ​ Drama and History ​ This poster ​ The Greeks invented drama as an art form and built the first theaters in the West. ​ promotes an 1898 ​Theatrical productions in Athens were both an expression of civic pride and a ​ production of ​ tribute to the gods. As part of their civic duty, wealthy citizens bore the cost of ​ Euripides’ Medea, ​ starring the great ​ producing the plays. Actors used colorful costumes, masks, and sets to dramatize ​ French actress Sarah stories. ​ The plays were about leadership, justice, and the duties owed to the gods. ​ Bernhardt. ​ They often included a chorus that danced, sang, and recited poetry. ​ Tragedy and Comedy ​ The Greeks wrote two kinds of drama—tragedy ​ and comedy.tragedy A ​ was ​ a serious drama about common themes such ​ as love, hate, war, or betrayal. These dramas featured a main character, or ​ tragic hero. The hero usually was an important person and often gifted with ​ extraordinary abilities. A tragic flaw usually caused the hero’s downfall. ​ Often this flaw was hubris, or excessive pride. ​ In ancient times, Greece had three notable dramatists who wrote trage- ​ dies. Aeschylus (EHS kuh luhs) wrote more than 80 plays. His most famous work is the trilogy—a three-play series—Oresteia (ohr res TEE uh). It is ​ based on the family of Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king who commanded ​ the Greeks at Troy. The plays examine the idea of justice. Sophocles ​ (SAHF uh kleez) wrote more than 100 plays, including the tragedies ​ Oedipus the King and ​Antigone. ​Euripides (yoo RIP uh DEEZ), author of ​ the play Medea, ​often featured strong women in his works. ​ in contrast to Greek tragedies, a comedy ​contained scenes filled ​ with slapstick situations and crude humor. Playwrights often made fun ​ of politics and respected people and ideas of the time. Aristophanes ​ (AR ih STAHF uh neez) wrote the first great comedies for the stage, ​ including The Birds ​and ​Lysistrata. Lysistrata ​portrayed the women of ​ Athens forcing their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War. The fact ​ that Athenians could listen to criticism of themselves showed Contrasting the ​freedom ​ and openness of public discussion that existed in democratic How didAthens. ​ ​ HistoryAs​ you learned earlier in this chapter, there are notragedy differ fromrecords written ​ ​ comedy? ​ from the dorian period. The epic poems of homer recount stories, but are ​ not accurate recordings of what took place. herodotus, a Greek who lived ​ in Athens for a time, pioneered the accurate reporting of events. his book ​ on the Persian Wars is considered the first work of history. However, the greatest ​ historian of the classical age was the Athenian Thucydides (thoo SID ih DEEZ). ​ he believed that certain types of events and political situations recur over time. ​ Studying those events and situations, he felt, would aid in understanding the pres- ​ ent. The approaches Thucydides used in his work still guide historians today. ​ 136 Chapter 5 ​​  Athenians and Spartans Go to War ​ As Athens grew in wealth, prestige, and power, other city-states began to view it ​ with hostility. Ill will was especially strong between Sparta and Athens. Instead of ​ trying to avoid conflict, leaders in Athens and Sparta pressed for a war to begin, ​ as both groups of leaders believed their own city had the advantage. Eventually, ​ Sparta declared war on Athens in 431 B.C. ​ Peloponnesian War the When ​ Peloponnesian ​ War ​ the two city-states ​ between began, Athens had the stronger navy. Sparta had the stronger army, and its location ​ inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea. Pericles’ strategy was ​ to avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike ​ Analyzing ​ Sparta and its allies from the sea. ​ Motives ​ Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory. They swept over the ​ What might have ​ countryside, burning crops. Pericles brought the people from the surrounding region ​ been Pericles’ goals in ​ the Peloponnesian War? inside ​ the city walls. The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could bring ​ supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states. In the second year of the war, ​ however, disaster struck Athens. A frightful plague swept through the city, kill- ​ ing perhaps one-third of the population, including Pericles. Although weakened, ​ Athens continued to fight for several years. Then, in 421 B.C., the two sides, worn ​ down by the war, signed a truce. ​ Sparta Gains Victory ​ The peace did not last long. In 415 B.C., the Athenians sent ​ a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily. Their plan ​ was to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta’s wealthiest allies. The ​ expedition ended with a crushing defeat In his in 413 study B.Cof. ​the Pelopon- ​ nesian War, Thucydides recalled: “[The Athenians] were destroyed with a total ​ destruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and ​ few out of many returned home.” Finally, theinAthenians 404 B.C., and ​ their allies ​ surrendered. Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth. ​ GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps ​ 1. Location ​Where were most of the allies of Athens located? ​ 2. MovementWhy​ was the sea important to Athens during the ​ Peloponnesian War? ​ Classical Greece 137 ​​  The Search for Knowledge ​ After the war, many Athenians lost confidence in democratic government and began ​ to question their values. In this time of uncertainty, several great thinkers appeared. ​ They were determined to seek the truth, no matter where the search led them. The ​ Greeks called such thinkers philosophers, ​meaning “lovers of wisdom.” These Greek thinkers based their philosophy on the following two assumptions: ​ The universe (land, sky, and sea) is put together in an orderly way, and ​ subject to absolute and unchanging laws. ​ People can understand these laws through logic and reason. ​ One group of philosophers, the Sophists, questioned people’s beliefs about tra- ​ ditional values. One of the most famous Sophists was Protagoras, who questioned ​ the existence of the Greek gods. He also argued that there was no universal stan- ​ dard of truth, saying “Man [the individual] is the measure of all things.” These were ​ radical and dangerous ideas to many Athenians. ​ Socrates One​ critic of the Sophists Socrates ​​ was(SAHK ruh ). the Making Unlike TEEZ Inferences ​ ​ Sophists, he believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and Why would philos- ​ However, ​ justice. he encouraged Greeks to go farther and question themselves and their ophers start moral questioning ​ charac- ​ ter. Historians believe that it was Socrates who once said, “Thetraditional beliefs at ​ unexamined life is not ​ worth living.” Socrates was admired by many who understood this particular his time in ​ However, ​ ideas. Athenian history? ​ others were puzzled by this man’s viewpoints. ​ In 399 B.C., when Socrates was about 70 years old, he was brought to trial for ​ “corrupting the youth of Athens” and “neglecting the city’s gods.” In his own defense, ​ Socrates said that his teachings were good for Athens because they forced people ​ to think about their values and actions. The jury disagreed and condemned him to ​ death. He died by drinking hemlock, a slow-acting poison. ​ PlatoA​ student of Socrates, Plato ​​ (PLAY toh), was in his late 20s when his teacher ​ died. Later, Plato wrote down the conversations of Socrates. Sometime in the 370s ​ B.C.,Plato ​ wrote his most famous The work, Republic. ​In it,​ he set forth his vision ​ of a perfectly governed society. It was not a democracy. In his ideal society, all ​ citizens would fall naturally into three groups: farmers and artisans, warriors, and ​ the ruling class. The person with the greatest insight and intellect from the ruling ​ class would be chosen philosopher-king. Plato’s writings dominated philosophic ​ thought in Europe for nearly 1,500 years. ​ AristotleThe​ philosopher Aristotle ​ ​ (AR ih STAHTquestioned uhl) the nature of the world and of human belief, thought, and knowledge. Aristotle came close to ​ summarizing all the knowledge up to his time. He invented a method for arguing ​ according to rules of logic. He later applied his method to psychology, physics, and ​ biology. His work provides the basis of the scientific method used today. ​ One of Aristotle’s most famous pupils was Alexander, son of King Philip II of ​ Macedonia. Around 343 B.C., Aristotle accepted the king’s invitation to tutor the ​ 13-year-old prince—who would become known as Alexander the Great. ​ Math, Science, and Technology ​ inquiry that characterized these phi- ​ The spirit of losophers was shared by other thinkers of classical Greece, in Athens and beyond. ​ The mathematician Thales is credited with establishing the concept of explaining ​ natural phenomena without referring to myths. Among other achievements, Thales ​ used geometry to calculate the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from ​ shore. Pythagoras and his students proposed that matter was arranged according to ​ mathematical principles. He recognized the connection between math and music, ​ perhaps inspired by the sound of blacksmiths’ hammers. ​ 138 Chapter 5​​  Socrates ​ Plato ​ Aristotle ​ 470–399 B.C. ​​ 427–347 B.C. ​​ 384–322 B.C. ​​ Socrates ​ Born into a wealthy ​ Aristotle, the son ​ encouraged his ​ Athenian family, ​ of a physician, was ​ students to ​ Plato had careers ​ one of the brightest ​ examine their ​ as a wrestler and ​ students at Plato’s ​ beliefs. He asked ​ a poet before ​ Academy. He came ​ them a series of ​ he became a ​ there as a young ​ leading questions ​ philosopher. After ​ man and stayed ​ to show that people hold many ​ Socrates, his teacher, died, Plato left Greece. for 20 years ​ until Plato’s death. In 335 B.C., ​​ He contradictory opinions. This question- ​ later returned to Athens and founded Aristotle a ​ opened his own school in Athens ​ and-answer approach to teaching ​ school called the Academy in 387 B.C. called​The ​ the Lyceum. The school eventually ​ is known as the Socratic method. ​ school lasted for approximately 900 years. rivaled​ the Academy. Aristotle once argued, ​ Socrates devoted his life to gaining It​ was Plato who once stated, “Philosophy “He who ​ studies how things originated... ​ self-knowledge and once said, “There begins is ​ in wonder. ” ​ will achieve the clearest view of them. ” ​ only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ​ ignorance. ” ​ Some scientists studied matter, including the nature of water, air, and fire. ​ Leucippus and Democritus even developed the idea of tiny particles of matter— ​ what we now call atoms. Another thinker, Theophrastus, wrote on many subjects, ​ including classifications of plants and of rocks. Theophrastus’s treatise On Mining, ​ hints that mining technology was advanced, but that work has been lost. ​ Although many works by Greek philosophers and scientists have been lost, ​ others were saved. In later centuries Greek ideas diffused throughout Western ​ culture. The Romans, who admired the Greeks, preserved many Greek works of ​ art and scholarship. Some Greek writings were kept in monasteries during the ​ Middle Ages. Arabic scholars also preserved Greek documents. Then, during the ​ Renaissance, admiration for Classical Greece inspired scholars and artists anew. ​ SECTION ​ 3 ​ ASSESSMENT ​ TERMS & NAMES 1. ​For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.​​ direct democracy classical ​ art ​ ​tragedy ​ ​comedy ​ Peloponnesian ​ War ​philosopher ​Socrates ​ Plato ​ Aristotle ​ Pythagoras ​ USING YOUR NOTES ​ MAIN IDEAS ​ CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING ​ 2. Which of Pericles’ goals do3.​ How did Pericles strengthen 7. ​ MAKING INFERENCES How does ​ the concept of hubris ​ you think had the greatest ​ democracy in Athens? ​ from Greek tragedy apply to the Peloponnesian War? ​ impact on the modern ​ 4. What were the battle strategies 8. DRAWING ​ Was the​ rule of Pericles a ​ CONCLUSIONS world? Explain your choice. ​of Athens and Sparta? ​ “golden age” for Athens? Explain. ​ 5. Why do you think some ​ 9. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you agree ​ ​ Athenians found the ideas of ​ with Socrates that there are absolute standards for truth ​ Pericles' Goals ​ Socrates so disturbing? ​ and justice? Why or why not? ​ 6. What were some achievements 10. ​WRITING ACTIVITY POWER ANDWrite a ​ ​​ AUTHORITY in mathematics, science