SocSci 1100 REVIEWER.docx

**REVIEWER IN SOCSCI 1100** **WHY STUDY HISTORY** - **PAST** -- [refers to everything that's happened up until this moment.] - **HISTORY** - [is a record of past events.] - **GEORGE SANTAYANA** -- "those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it" **1. HISTORY HELPS U...

**REVIEWER IN SOCSCI 1100** **WHY STUDY HISTORY** - **PAST** -- [refers to everything that's happened up until this moment.] - **HISTORY** - [is a record of past events.] - **GEORGE SANTAYANA** -- "those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it" **1. HISTORY HELPS US UNDERSTAND PEOPLE AND SOCIETIES** **2. HISTORY HELPS US UNDERSTAND CHANGE AND HOW THE** **SOCIETY WE LIVE IN CAME TO BE** \- the past causes the present, and so is the future **3. HISTORY CONTRIBUTES TO MORAL UNDERSTANDING** **4. HISTORY HELPS US UNDERSTAND OURSELVES** **AND OUR IDENTITY** **5. STUDYING HISTORY IS ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP** **6. HISTORY HELPS US TO DEVELOP LIFELONG SKILLS** \- The Ability to Assess Evidence (interpret numerous sources) \- The Ability to Assess Conflicting Interpretations (analyze conflicting evidence) **6. HISTORY HELPS US TO DEVELOP LIFELONG SKILLS** \- It provides Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change (create arguments) \- Find patterns and trends \- think outside the box (be creative) **7. HISTORY IS USEFUL IN THE WORLD OF WORK** **WHY STUDY HISTORY?** The answer is\... **- because we virtually must, to gain access to the laboratory of human experience.** **HISTORICAL THEORIES OF HISTORY FROM GREEKS TO MARXISM** **Greeks (2500 years ago)** -- first attempts to survey the long march of human history, study its causes, and set forth its successive stages along scientific lines. **Greeks (2500 years ago)** -- The discrimination of the passage of time into a well-defined past, present and future is rooted in the evolution of the organization of labour. The calendar first appears in agricultural communities **Greeks (2500 years ago)** -- Primitive peoples from savagery to the upper stages of **barbarism** - forms part of an objective universal history **Greeks (2500 years ago)** -- Jesuit father Jacob Baegert in his "Account of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the California Peninsula" **Pre-Spanish times** -- they marked only one repetitive event, the pitahaya fruit Harvest **Social relation** -- It appeared to them as fixed and final as the heavens and earth and as natural as their eyes and Ears. learn to distinguish between what belonged to nature and what belonged to society Before the arrival of the Europeans, the North American Indian could travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or the Australian native thousands of miles, without Encountering radically different types of human societies. one form of social structure to another. Trade, travel and war -- different customs and cultures. The first really rational explanation of the historical Process as a whole was given by the outstanding Greek Historians from Herodotus to Polybius (cyclical conception Of historical movement) -- society, like nature, passed through identical patterns of development in periodically repeated rounds. **Herodotus**, the [first anthropologist as well as the father of History], gathered valuable information on the customs of The Mediterranean peoples living in savagery, barbarism And civilization. **Thucydides** , identical events were bound to happen again. **Plato** -the planets would occupy the same positions as Before and all sublunary events would be reduplicated (Republic & Laws) -- "There is no new thing under the sun." **Aristotle** -- (Politics) -- collected specimens of different Forms of state rule. **Polybius** -- all states inevitably passed through the phases Of kingship, aristocracy and democracy which Degenerated into their allied forms of despotism, Oligarchy and mob rule. **"Theories in the Study of History"** **1. The Great God Theory** -- Genesis (Israelite scriptures Whence it was taken over and reshaped by the Christian And Mohammedan religions and their states) **2. The Great Man Theory** -- The immense powers Attributed to the gods become transferred to and Concentrated in some figure at the head of the state, the Church or other key institution or movement (Fetishistic Worship) ranged from the divine monarch, the tyrant, the lawgiver (Solon), the military conqueror (Alexander), the dictator (Caesar), the hero-emancipator (David), and the Religious leader (Christ, Buddha, Mohammed). **3. The Great Mind Theory --** **Hegel** -- the progress of mankind consisted in the working Out and consummation of an idea -"Spirit, or Mind, is the only motive principle of History." **Plato** -- "some natures who ought to study philosophy And to be leaders in the state;. and others who are not born To be philosophers, and are meant to be followers rather. Than leaders". 4\. **The Best People Theory** -- **Hegel** -- prejudice that some elite, the Best Race, the Favoured nation, the ruling class. alone make history. 5\. **The Human Nature Theory** -- history has been Determined by the qualities of human nature, good or Bad. How the social structure was molded or had to be Remodeled. **"Idealistic interpretations of history"** **1.Hegel** -- he revolutionized the understanding of world History, placing it at the widest vantage point of The bourgeois era. (national state); and -Its monarchical form, modified by a Constitution! **2.Marxism** -- history is the result of the collective actions of Multitudes, of mass effort extending. over prolonged Periods within the framework of the powers of production they have received and extended and the modes of Production they have created, built up and Revolutionized **- World history is the history of human struggle** **- "Stratification of Society**" -- arranging of people According to their material condition. or wealth. **INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY** **"Theoretical Concepts In the Study of History"** A. **HISTORY DEFINED** Most familiar definition of "history" **- "the study of past events"** The term "**history**" entered **English in 1390**, meaning "***relation of incidents/story***" from Old **French** "***historie***" and **Latin** "***historia***." The word originated from **Ancient Greek** "***ἱστορία***," meaning "***learning by inquiry**"* and derived from the **verb** "***ἱστορεῖν***," which means "***to inquire***." In **German**, the equivalent "***geschichle***" emphasizes "***intelligible and significant narration of past events."*** In **Tagalog**, historian **Ambeth Ocampo** translates "***history***" as "***kasaysayan***," which means "***salaysay***" with "***saysay***" ("story with meaning"). \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Ancient Greek historians like **Herodotus and Thucydides** played key roles in the development of history. **Herodotus**, known as the ***'Father of History,'*** wrote about the ***Graeco-Persian wars***, providing valuable information on ancient Egyptians and Persians. **Thucydides** advanced historical writing by adopting a scientific approach, particularly evident in his work "***The Peloponnesian Wars***." Thucydides focused on presenting evidence and illustrating the cause-and-effect relationships between events. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ B. **HOW SCHOLARS AND HISTORIANS ACROSS TIME AND CULTURE DEFINE AND CONVEY THE MEANING OF "HISTORY"** a. **Edward Hallett Carr**: "History is an ***unending dialogue between the present and the past*** and the chief function of historian is to master and understand the past as a key to the understanding of present." b. **A.L. Rowse**: "***History is essentially the record of the life of men in societies in their geographical and their physical environments***. Their social and cultural environments arise from the interaction of the one with the other, the society and its geographical condition." c. **John Jacob Anderson**: "***History is a narration of the events*** which have happened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race." d. **Carl G. Gustavson**: "***History is a mountain top of human knowledge*** from whence the doings of our own generation may be scanned and fitted into proper dimensions. History enables a person to see himself as part of that living process of human growth which has emerged out of the past and will inexorably project itself out beyond our own life time. We are the product of the past but not the complete product." e. **Arnold J. Toynbee**: "History not used is nothing, for all intellectual life is action, like practical life, and ***if you don't use the stuff well, it might as well be dead.***" f. **Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges**: "***History is and should be a science***... History is not the accumulation of events of every kind which happened in the past. It is the science of human societies." g. **Teodoro Agoncillo**: a. "***History deals with the past, not with the future.*** We use history to avoid the mistakes of the past, not to recreate the very same events. You cannot."; b. "***History is written by every generation***. Every generation writes its own history using the same sources. The interpretations vary according to time." **C. HISTORY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES** When considering history as an academic field of study, knowledge of History is often said to encompass both knowledge of past events and historical Thinking skills. It involves asking whether alternative accounts might tell a different story, or whether the account contains any bias. **Traditionally** - the study of history has been ***considered a part of the humanities***, alongside a subject such as literature **Modern academia** - History is increasingly ***classified as a social science,*** especially when chronology is The focus (New World Encyclopedia). **History and Political Science - *This involves dynamics and nature of fundamental political principles and basic forms of political institution*.** Prof. Acton has correctly pointed out, "the science of politics is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history like grains of gold in the sand of a river." **History and Economics --** As the activities of a man in society are very closely related with the economic matters, the historian of any period must possess at least a rudimentary knowledge of the economics. ***History is so closely interlinked with the study of economic problems that it would not be possible to reconstruct history without knowledge of the relevant economic problems.*** **History and Sociology --** sociology is ***helping history to study 'social dynamics'*** which is a study not of society at rest but constantly in social change and development social processes and social causation are giving a new perspective to history. **History and Ethics --** Although a true historian is not expected to pass distinct and sensitive judgments on the historical incidents and characters, yet he ***must know about the ethical principle of the time which influenced the conduct of the people in the past.*** **History and Psychology --** A historian must have to show some psychological insights while making an analysis of the motive and actions of men and societies. ***An understanding of the group psychology can enable a historian to determine the role of masses in the various revolutions*** such as Jingoistic patriotism has been described as the cause of certain wars but historian can discuss this cause with the help of the social psychology. **History and Geography --** ***it would be practically impossible to study; certain branches of history without rudimentary knowledge of geography*** e.g., the diplomatic or military history cannot be fallowed without necessary geographical knowledge of the region. Geography is one of the eyes of history the other eye being chronology. Time and space factors give history its correct perspective. ** Prof. Michelet** -- ["Without a geographical basis the people, the makers of History, seek to be walking."] ** German philosopher Kant** -- ["Geography lies at the basis of history] ** Herder** - ["history is geography set in motion."] **D. BRANCHES OF HISTORY** *The following are some major subfields of history:* **Political History** - ***is the narration of the evolution of the political related matters of the past***. This branch of history deals with the analysis of political leaders, ideas, events, movements, activities and so on, along with the making of government policies (constitutions etc). This branch of history focuses on the study of normative beliefs as it is believed to be the reason behind the historical changes. **Social History** - ***primarily devotes to the social life of the people 'viz' religion, national economy, morals, manners, foods, dress, art, culture etc.*** In this history, the political, dynastic and constitutional aspects of history are degraded to the background. In addition to these some historians made an attempt to deal with the general patterns of social development. **Economic History** - ***is the branch of history that focuses on the study of economies as well as economical phenomena of the past*.** Simply, the study of the pattern of the production, consumption alongside industry, market and so on concerning the past, economic history aims to understand the historical events of the economical processes. **Legal History** - ***is another independent branch of history which has grown in the recent times.*** The historians of legal history devoted themselves to the study of legal development and tried to show how the law adjust itself according to the changing social conditions.Among the prominent historians of legal history mention may be made of Gumplowicz (in Austria), Geake, Jhering, Brunner, etc. (in Germany) Maitland,Blackstone, Pullock, Laski (etc., in France), etc. The other contributions in the field of legal history are the works, like the codification of the Laws of Manu, the codes of Hummurabi, Napoleonic codes etc. **Diplomatic History** - ***can be considered a branch of political history but developed as an independent discipline.*** In the view of close connections and relations between various members of the international communities, huge body of principles of international laws has grown, which govern the foreign relations of various sovereign states. Considered to have started in the nineteenth century, diplomatic history is the branch of history that focuses on the study of international relations between nations (between states). **Military History**- Military history is closely allied with the political history. ***Though waging of wars is still considered a political activity.*** In the recent times, the historian makes a detailed study of the causes of war, strategy and tactics of war, organisation of the war machinery including weapons, fighting machine and service condition of the soldiers. **Cultural History** - ***Cultural history is the branch of history that deals with the traditions and cultural interpretation of the past. It is a study of various facets of human and history***. Simply, cultural history records and interprets various past events involving human beings like literature, sport, and entertainment and much more. **Social History -** ***The history which focuses on the study of various societal norms like ways of living, standard, customs, disciplines, status and so on of the people, alongside the demography.*** Simply, it is a branch of history which looks at the lived experience of the past. ***Today, social history is otherwise called the New Social History.*** **Intellectual History** - The history which aims to understand the ideas ***(ideology and philosophy)*** by understanding the political, cultural, intellectual, and social context of the past. ***Intellectual history is about the human (historians) actions and how they developed history.*** **Religious History** - The branch of history which deals with the study and investigation of ecclesiastical structures, the link between denominations and social change, the history of ***doctrines, study of formal beliefs,*** and how did these originate and evolved overtime across cultures and generations. **OVERVIEW OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES** **DIFFERENT SOURCES AND VARIETIES OF HISTORY** History (from the Greek ἱστορία, meaning 'a learning or knowing by inquiry') can be broadly taken to indicate the past in general but is usually defined as the study of the past from the point at which there were written sources onwards **What are the Sources of Historical knowledge?** Sources - are our way of peering into the past, but the various kinds all present their own benefits and difficulties. Primary source - is ***first-hand material*** that stems (roughly) from the time period that one wants to examine, Secondary source - is an ***additional step removed from that period -- a 'second-hand'*** work that is the result of reconstructing and interpreting the past using the primary material, such as textbooks, articles, and, of course, websites such as this one. A. **PRIMARY SOURCES** **What type of source is it?** What does its form tell us? Is it a neatly engraved inscription, an Undecorated, heavily used bit of earthenware, or a roughly scribbled letter on cheap Paper? **Who created the source?** How did they gather the necessary information? Were they an Eyewitness, or did they rely on researching other sources or on the stories of people who Had witnessed the event? Could they be biased? **With which goal was the source created?** Did the creator want to tell a truthful story or, For instance, influence others through propaganda? How reliable does that make it? **What is the context in which the source was created?** To understand a source, it helps to Know something about the society and immediate context in which it was made. A Christian Source written while Christianity was still a persecuted religion differs from one after Christianity was made the official religion. Compare it with other sources from the same period/that concern the same subject to help you assess how reliable the source may be and help you interpret its content. **What is the content of the source and how do we interpret it?** What does it tell us and what does it not tell us? What are its limitations? What sorts of questions could this source Answer? 1. **Written sources** - Some examples of primary written sources are contemporary letters, eyewitness accounts, official documents, political declarations and decrees, administrative texts, and histories and biographies written in the period that is to be studied. 2. **Epigraphy**- refers to the study of inscriptions engraved upon various surfaces such as stone, metal, wood, clay tablets, or even wax, which may vary hugely in length from mere abbreviated words and administrative tablets to depicting entire official decrees. 3. **Settlements, buildings, & monuments** - The daily lives of people become visible through the remains of their houses and the buildings they made use of, such as courts of law, bakeries, or schools. Monuments, also not unusually flashing inscriptions at its audience, can reveal the messages their normally powerful creators cried out to the world through their architecture and imagery. As such, they can be used to reconstruct the structure of societies. 4. **Artefacts** - are man-made things of archaeological interest, often from a cultural context. Examples are pottery, utensils, tools and jewellery, which can alert us to daily lives, style and culture; art -- including statues -- which can be both public and private and reflects the society in some way; and coins, which are more political -- often standardised, they proclaim a visible message that tends to serve as propaganda to bolster a ruler's image. 5. **Bones** - Studying bones yields clues regarding health, gender, age, size, diet, etc. Retrieval of ancient DNA -- though not exactly a walk in the park -- is also possible. The context in which bones are found as well as the point in time they came from help to fill information regarding their societies. This is already valuable in support of historical sources, as, for instance, mass graves of victims of the black death support the image created by the written record, but for the prehistoric side of things, bones are truly indispensable in helping us fill in the blanks. B. **SECONDARY SOURCES** To ***prevent being misled, it is important to always study more than one secondary sources.*** Compare different books and articles on the subject you are researching, and, after assessing each source's reliability, strengths and weaknesses, try to get as complete a view as possible of the topics. *When using secondary sources, it thus helps to ask these questions:* **Has the author been trained in the right field, and does he or she have decent credit in the Academic world?** Reading reviews can be of great assistance here. **Where was the source published and could that impact the contents at all?** Also, when it Comes to articles, some journals have better reputations than others. **When was the source published?** Times change. A textbook written in the 1960s CE may not have had access to all the information we have right now and may be colored by the time's prevailing ideas about how to approach the study of history. **What is the scope of the source?** Social histories paint a different picture than military ones, So be sure to choose sources that correspond with the questions you yourself want to Answer. **Which sources has the author used and how critical has he or she been?** It is important the Author has documented his or her use of sources, so you can examine them yourself if need Be. Keep an eye out for selective use of sources; an author should not simply choose the Sources that fit their hypothesis but should take the full range of primary information into Account.The materials to be questioned vary from, for instance, textbooks and course books to Independent books, articles (including scientific ones, whose accuracy may be hard to judge by a Non-scientist), and websites -- but be sure to pick ones that show source lists and authors' names. As long as you stay critical, there is a wealth of information at your disposal. **THE NATURE AND VARIETY OF HISTORICAL SOURCES** Primary Sources Written primary sources can be divided into two major cate gories: manuscript sources and published sources. MANUSCRIPT SOURCES- For Historians, a manuscript is any handwritten or typed record or communication that has not been printed or otherwise duplicated In significant quantities for public dissemination. PUBLISHED SOURCES- published primary sources can be divided into two categories: 1. Manuscript materials such as letters, diaries, and memoranda, usually intended as private, sometimes intimate, documents, often published after the death of their authors; and 2. Materials that were intended from the outset to be printed and made public -- for example newspaper articles, congressional debates, autobiographies, annual reports of corporations, and reports of the United States Census Bureau.There are few major political figures in the modern world, partic ularly in the United States, whose writings have not been published. Secondary works or sources come in a great variety as well --from multivolume works of collective scholarship to short essays,from general histories to the most specialized monographs. Next we will  Going to the Sources Consider some of the different forms that written histories can take: books, essays, and articles. Books - Books are such a universal and commonplace feature of academic life that students seldom ponder about their diversity or unique struc tures. Essay - An essay (sometimes simply called a "chapter") is a short, self Contained study, usually bound with similar pieces in book form.Like a book, an essay can be narrow or broad in scope, base on primary or secondary sources, and chiefly narrative or assertively interpretive. Articles - Similar to essays in structure, length, and purpose, scholarly Articles form an even more important segment of the body of secondary works. Dissertations and Conference Papers- Turning from those secondary sources that are readily accessible in published form -- such as books, essays, and articles -- let us con sider now two other forms in which new findings are presented: scholarly dissertations and conference Papers.