Sociology Test Document PDF

Socialisation Family (primary socialisation) ❖​ First and most important stage of learning your culture ❖​ From ages 0-5, learn norms/values from family ❖​ Often familial norms and not societal norms - like speaking a language ❖​ Children absorb everything from their parents...

Socialisation Family (primary socialisation) ❖​ First and most important stage of learning your culture ❖​ From ages 0-5, learn norms/values from family ❖​ Often familial norms and not societal norms - like speaking a language ❖​ Children absorb everything from their parents ​ Behaviour, posture, facial expression, manners, body language - imitation/unconscious socialisation ❖​ Learn through rewards and sanctions what behaviour is acceptable. Parents have to model this behaviour they seek or it doesn’t work ❖​ We also learn: ​ Politics, views on gender roles, religion, class/finance views, age treatment, sexuality. Passed down from generation to generation. ❖​ Genie Wiley ​ Feral child. She was kept in almost complete isolation from her family until 13 years old when her mother took her out in 1970. Scientists studied her and helped her develop skills until she was taken away and became a ward of the court ​ Brain wasn’t stimulated enough - smaller brains and the longer it happens the worse it gets. Doesn’t develop capacity for language (and can’t if not a kid) Media (secondary socialisation) ❖​ Huge influences on us as use of social media is now very popular ❖​ Learns globalisation culturally, trend setting, current social norms/values ❖​ Mulvey (1975) - Male Gaze ​ Women in films/tv/adverts are portrayed to attract straight men on purpose. Girls are socialised to concentrate on their physical appearance heavily. ❖​ Can promote copycat behaviour e.g tango 1970s Education (secondary socialisation) ❖​ Overlaps with peer groups. You learn two curriculums - syllabus for the subject and a ‘hidden curriculum’ in which we learn the social norms/values outside of formal teaching ❖​ Hidden curriculum can consist of disobeyment sanctions, celebrating achievements, the school structure itself. Teachers are the main sources of passing on these norms/values ❖​ Bowles and Gintis (1976) ​ Schooling in capitalist america study. Bowels and Gintis were Marxists who thought the hidden curriculum was designed to brainwash kids into obedience. See it as very significant but not good for the majority. ​ This includes submission to authority, timings, praise/sanctions. Discourages individuality but also teaches norms and values Peer groups (secondary socialisation) ❖​ People of a similar age to you which includes friends (but also your year group) ❖​ Mostly important during school years from ages of 5-18 ❖​ Learns conformity and are influenced by who we hang out with - usually a sort of hierarchy (leaders/followers)  ❖​ Can be a source of rebellion e.g youth subcultures such as punks who have different norms/values to others in society ❖​ Sue Lee (1986) ​ Boys called girls slags if they appeared ‘sexually available’ and drags if they weren’t. Negatively labels both - no middle ground. Religion (secondary socialisation) ❖​ Secularism is on the rise ❖​ Many of our norms and values are based on Christian influence e.g shorter hours on Sunday, RE curriculum, C of E primaries, laws ❖​ Also other beliefs such as divorce, homosexuality, abortion, murder and euthanasia are influenced by religion. ❖​ 2021 Census ​ Less than half of the population identified as Christian (46.2%) ​ No religion (37%), Muslim (6.5%) - proof of secularism and diversity in the UK Workplace (secondary socialisation) ❖​ Key agent for adults ❖​ Includes formal (expectations and performance) and informal (college and work culture) e.g work outings/not sucking up ❖​ Canteen Culture ​ Waddington (1999) had the concept of bigoted shared norms and values in the workplace slowly become normalised. E.g racist jokes turn into actual racist attitudes. ❖​ Stephen Lawrence ​ 1993 racially motivated murder via a stabbing attack. Perpetrators linked to other crimes of the same description. Police blamed for lack of action and had an inquiry into racism in the force (due to canteen culture) ​ MacPherson Inquiry: MET incompetence like lack of first aid/less arrests - institutionally racist. Abolished double jeopardy and other charges. Nature ❖​ Characteristics are innate - you’re born with them ❖​ Nativists ❖​ Biology influences intelligence, morals, gender roles and social attitudes ​ E.g = twin studies of Oskar and Jack Nurture ❖​ Characteristics are socially constructed ❖​ Social constructivists ❖​ Society influences who you are as a person, specifically childhood ​ E.g = feral children such as Genie Wiley, the wolf children and Isabel the ‘chicken girl’ Primary vs secondary socialisation ❖​ Parsons ❖​ Family (primary) is an immediate influence ❖​ Secondary influences are external and re-evaluates norms/values  Culture Popular Culture ❖​ Popular culture refers to products/activities that are enjoyed by the majority of the population at a moment in time ❖​ Comprises of attitudes, ideas, perceptions and perspectives that have been brought into a collective agreement existence by an informal consensus ❖​ Made to be accessible to everyone as you don’t need lots of knowledge/wealth to be able to access it ​ Some believe it is manufactured/fake/brainwashing of the masses. ​ Others argue that the distinction lies in who supports and accesses it ❖​ The History ​ Started after WW2 as innovations in mass media led to significant cultural/social changes. Consumerism rise impacted this ​ Popular culture merged with mass, consumer, image and media culture for mass consumption ❖​ John Storey ​ Cultural theory and popular culture - book ​ Describes it as a “hopelessly commercial culture that is mass-produced for mass consumption for a mass of non-discriminating consumers.” He further states that it is “formulaic and manipulative” ​ A product/brand has to be sold to its audience before it can be entrenched in mass/society - needs to be bombarded to society so it finds its place Two Sociological Arguments for it ❖​ 1. Popular culture is used by the elite (who tend to control the mass media) to control those below them as it dulls their minds, making it passive/easy to control ❖​ 2. Popular culture is vehicle for rebellion against the culture of dominant groups Mass Culture ❖​ Refers to culture that is widely disseminated (spread out) through mass media ❖​ Set of ideas/values that develop from common exposure e.g media and sources, its broadcast to individuals rather then occurring through day to day interactions ❖​ Makes the advert feel very natural ❖​ Mass-produced culture - it has to go through mass culture to become popular ❖​ Choice ​ We have little choice in what we really like by the industry - we see these all the time and are told what to like. ​ Adorno says what’s popular is not judged by peoples tastes but forced on us ❖​ Marketing gives ‘sneak peaks’ and ‘cast photos’ ❖​ Trailers pop up on our social media even if we don’t actively look them up e.g meme pages making it seem everyone enjoys it when it just promotes it to become popular culture. ❖​ Marx: Alienation ​ Marx says that the proletariat have no control over their lives so they’re alienated from their humanity. No real creative freedom. ​ The culture of the workers is dictated to them by the bourgeoisie as mass culture is also seen as low culture. High culture is reserved for them ​ Criticism: anyone can listen to classical music and alot of footballers are from lower social class backgrounds but can afford to take part in high culture activities. Doesn’t apply as much nowadays Consumer Culture ❖​ Equating personal happiness with the purchasing of material possessions ❖​ Form of capitalism in which the economy is focused on the selling of consumer goods and the spending of consumer money. E.g the USA ​ Consumption = the things we buy ​ Consumer = buyer ❖​ Many sociologists see the UK as a “consumer society” ​ Based on cultural factors - portrays a sense of identity through available goods ​ Based on economic conditions - to create this consumer culture we need an economy revolving around consumption ❖​ Some items are exclusive e.g related to high culture. Out of budget for ordinary people such as designer jewellery, ect. Mostly inclusive though ❖​ Expensive consumer culture is privileged as it grants status to those who use it. ❖​ Cheap consumer culture is stigmatised as it assumes you lack taste ❖​ Some people reject consumer culture e.g hand-made, secondhand, charity shopping but it’s still part of it as you’re still buying things ❖​ What makes it up? ​ Wide range and availability of goods ​ Leisure pursuit ​ Different forms of shopping e.g local, internet, city, ect ​ Being in debt is accepted as a social norm ​ Packaging and promotion of goods is a large-scale business ​ Celia Lury is a key theorist behind consumer culture Low/High Culture ❖​ Low culture is a derogatory term which refers to cultures which are typically viewed as ‘inferior’ or low/no value ❖​ Connection between low culture and popular culture as it requires less learning/education to participate; also a link between folk culture as it’s rooted in superstition rather then rationality ​ The low culture magazine advertised ‘cheaper’ brands such as Aldi, more gossip-based language and pictures ❖​ High culture refers to cultures with activities seen as high status ❖​ What is considered ‘cultured’ in this sense are those presenting higher achievements. Seen as exclusive and not meant to be enjoyed by ‘ordinary people’ ❖​ Privileged and confers status on those who enjoy it ​ The high culture magazine advertised luxury brands such as Porsche, more educational and factional language with organised pictures. The paper also felt higher quality ❖​ Things that were previously seen to be traditional high culture (e.g theatre, ballet) are breaking down into more middle/lower culture. E.g turning Shakespeare into movies, classical music into pop songs Global Culture ❖​ Refers to the growing trend of cultural products/activities becoming universal ❖​ Includes brands, foods, films, ect - identical across many diff countries so national cultures loose their distinctiveness ❖​ Netflix ​ Has nearly 250 million paid subscribers worldwide and 20+ languages ​ Seen as high culture, popular culture and consumer culture ​ Seen as a perfect example of American Imperialism so encourages people to watch/imitate the style of American shows ​ Created worldwide media empire based on American culture  ❖​ Ties to colonisation - successful at exporting western culture to parts of the lesser developed world. Makes it more diverse ❖​ In contrast, global culture has allowed cultural items e.g food/music to come over ❖​ Others think that it will lead to being culturally homogenous. Can lead to cultural defence to promote their culture/resist others. ❖​ Global Village ​ World has become a smaller place due to multinational companies, travel and global access to the media. ​ Individuals are more connected to the news from the outside world like live updates. Giddens (postmodernist) explains this means an increasing number of people have a global outlook and identify with a global audience. E.g natural disasters are donated to by people across the world ❖​ McDonaldization ​ Ritzer (1993) proposed that McDonaldization has four primary components ​ Efficiency = optimal method for accomplishing a task. Hungry to full in the fastest time. ​ Calculability = the objective should be quantifiable rather than subjective. Quantity = quality because of the large amount of product in a short amount of time is the same as a high quality product. ​ Predictability = standardised and uniform services so it’s the same in every McDonalds. ​ Control = replacement of human by non-human technologies ❖​ The process of cultural globalisation is criticised for being one-way (unilateral) - leads to cultural imperialism (domination of one culture) and cultural homogeneity ❖​ Refer to it as Americanisation across the globe ❖​ Appadurai argues for a more subtle view of globalisation and state that consideration should been given to the forms of cultural hybridity and heterogeneity (diversity) that emerge from it ❖​ Globalisation leads to cultures no longer being so separate. Increasingly connected to each other like dubs in other languages. Folk Culture ❖​ Refers to the practices of ordinary local people which are rooted in long-standing traditions which date back to pre-industrial era ❖​ Rooted in one place/specific there (often) ❖​ Folklore is cultural heritage transmitted from generation to generation by oral/written/recorded means ​ Includes music, art, literature, drama, dance, storytelling, ect ​ Small homogeneous groups in isolated areas ❖​ Lived experience - normally locally based. Strong sense of community with intergenerational ties and kinship ❖​ Folk songs are usually anonymously and transmitted orally - normally about everyday life, rituals, customs etc. ❖​ Diffusion ​ Becoming diffused due to migration and the internet ​ Blended with other cultural practices to form a hybrid ​ E.g many sports were originally isolated folk culture costumes - soccer ❖​ Soccer ​ Danish invasion of England between 1018 and 1042 with kick the dane's head ​ Resemble mob scene from english folk culture to global popular culture ​ 1800s became worldwide - Football Association ​ Association - assoc - soccer. ❖​ Popular/mass culture is produced with the purpose of being sold. Widely distributed. Through globalisation and modern communication; quite status-driven and aspirational and it flourishes when inhabitants have enough time/money to consume it.  ❖​ Bhutan ​ In 1999 they brought TV. Last place on earth to get tv (above Bangladesh) ​ Had a ‘cable guy’ - didn’t realise how peaceful their life was until TV ​ Distracting them from their old folk norms in favour of globalisation ❖​ Tarantella ​ Group of various folk dances with tambourines and very recognisable from Southern Italian music Identity Gender ❖​ Sex = refers to biological and physical differences between M/F ❖​ Gender = social expectations of behaviour that society attaches to each sex. Expects to conform to by social construction ❖​ Traditional Male ​ Breadwinner, protector, ignorant, nonchalant, strong, aggressive ❖​ Traditional Female ​ Homemaker, mother, carer, proper, pink, emotional, babies, passive ❖​ The UK is a patriarchal society. Hegemonic ideology about M/F differences ❖​ Wilkinson ​ Freedom’s Children by Helen Wilkinson (1997) ​ The younger generation are different from their parents. More assertive and take for granted that they can choose their life. Women are more powerful - more willing to take risks and reject social spheres. Birth right to equality. Move away from gender stereotypes. Can explore M/F side Females ❖​ Assertive femininity ​ Reflects the changing role of women in society - partly as feminists. ​ Assertive girl power is more recent and older women are largely excluded from this new wave of femininity ❖​ Androgynous femininity ​ Gender ambiguity can be found in fashion, gender identity, sexual identity. Speaking voice. Models nowadays. ❖​ Hegemonic femininity ​ Term that prescribes the dominant qualities a woman is believed to have. Hegemonic is the ruling/dominant social class. ​ Historically falls under sexually attractive, straight, passive, sweet, faithful, slim, white, monogamous ❖​ Kehily ​ Women have moved from being marginalised/invisible to being visible identities in public spheres of work and leisure ​ These patriarchal ideas still exist - e.g slim=happy, male gaze, ect ​ Decision to start a family is more likely to negatively affect the female’s economic positions ​ Opportunities for this feminism is not shared equally e.g girls from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more at risk of early motherhood and social exclusion Males ❖​ Hegemonic masculinity ​ Connell (1995) identifies a range of masculinities in the UK  ​ Dominant view, male supremacy, heterosexuality, aggression, strength. ❖​ Complicit masculinity ​ New ideas of man ​ Men who take a shared role in raising the family, less sexist and less “macho” ❖​ Subordinate masculinity ​ Connell uses this term to describe men who are viewed as behaving differently to the expectations of hegemonic masculinity. Includes gay men and black men. ❖​ Marginalised masculinity ​ Relates to men affected by the changing nature of the labour market over the last 40 years. Decline in traditional manufacturing so less “traditional working class male jobs”. May feel a sense of loss ​ Decline in manual jobs so they do more office work now (which used to be associated with women). Feminisation of the workplace. ​ Mac and Ghail (1994) ​ Men are facing a crisis of masculinity. Due to changes in society (e.g loss of ‘male’ jobs), the traditional masculinity identity has declined. May respond in various ways like depression, crime, giving up, or adopting a new identity. Agents of Socialisation Family ❖​ Subject to Oakley’s 4 socialisations (canalisation, manipulation, verbal appellations and differential activity. ❖​ Fathers stricter on gender roles Education ❖​ Miller and Church = teachers reinforce gender roles ❖​ Frosher = male behaviour is either academic and successful or conforms to hegemonic masculinity norms. anti-school subculture ❖​ Girls divide a lot through social class and ethnicity Religion ❖​ Male-only hierarchies. Segregation to sexes and traditional stereotypical sexist gender roles. Peer groups ❖​ Boys who expressed feminine interests = shamed. ❖​ Alder = population of boys depends on how cool/tough. Girls depend on physical appearance and academic success. ❖​ Gender bullying e.g males violence, girls gossip Media ❖​ Johnson = gender reinforcement through TV ads (action, looks, colour) ❖​ Male gaze objectification ❖​ Functionalism = female roles are natural and based on child-bearing. Same for males but breadwinner - socialised into this. ❖​ Feminists = socially constructed by the patriarchy includes Mac and Ghail 1994 (boys learning to be men by hyper-masculinity, 3 F’S aka fighting football fucking) Ethnicity ❖​ Ethnic identity is made up of many things - religion, language, region, ethnicity and skin colour. ​ Relates to culture and cultural characteristics sam ​ Race = biology ​ Generally distinctive populations within species. Minor morphological forms ​ Ethnicity = culture ❖​ Sociologists note that significant people in the UK share ethnic identity ❖​ Anderson 1993 ​ Ethnic groups are “imagined communities”  ​ They exist as people believe they do. See themselves as distinct and furthermore different ❖​ Common descent = may be represented by colour/other racial characteristics ​ Modood’s 1997 study suggests that being Black is a very important source of identity for african-caribbeans ❖​ Geographical origins = links with a country of origin in importance - may involve setting one’s identity as their country first. E.g Welsh, Pakistani, Irish ❖​ History = members of ethnic minority cultures may share a sense of struggle/oppression which originates in historical contexts. E.g slavery, colonialism, persecution ❖​ Language = members of groups may speak languages of origin at home e.g Tamil and English Racism ❖​ Forms of racism ​ Overt (direct) ​ Covert (indirect) ​ Otherisation = a phenomenon in which some individuals or groups are defined and labelled as not fitting within the norms of a social group. Influences how people perceive/treat those in-group and those out-group ​ “Us vs them” way of thinking about human connections. ❖​ 1964 Smethwick Seat = Peter Griffith (racist conservative won this seat). If he had his way he would’ve apartheid South Africa (separated based on ethnic criteria) ❖​ 1960 Sharpeville Massacre = Police fired on a crowd of Black people in South Africa, Sharpeville. Killed 250 people. Were peacefully protesting Apartheid laws outside a police station. ❖​ 2018 Boris Johnson = compared burqa women to letterboxes and bank robbers. The Telegraph said it was stupid to wear them. Caused a 375% spike in islamophobic incidents. ❖​ Institutional racism ​ Prejudice and discrimination can be experienced and take several forms - e.g name-calling, harassment, violence, stereotyping and otherisation ​ Includes racism from within systems - called systematic racism. Carmichael and Hamilton 1967 ​ Describes processes at works in institutions like teaching, businesses and sentences disadvantage people of colour ​ Subconsciously may be racist even if they aren’t racist themselves as the institution is - consequences ❖​ In 2022, there were 516k stop and searches in England/Wales ❖​ For 20%, ethnicity was not recorded. ❖​ Of that 80% which was, there were 27 stop and searches for every 1000 black people compared to 6 for every 1000 white people. ❖​ About 40% of all stop and searches took place in the MET Police area in London. London also has the highest rate for black and asian ethnic groups Studies ❖​ Jacobson (1997) ​ Studied GB Pakistanis. Found they were adopting strong, Islamic identities as a response to racism and social exclusion. ​ A strong muslim identity gave them stability and security. Diet, dress and religious practices are a form of defence and resist marginalisation ❖​ James (1993) ​ Studied African-Caribbeans in the UK. Found that in their countries, there is a hierarchy based on darkness of skin. Imposed by colonialism  ​ Impact of racism brings them together in the UK and a shared oppositional culture grew ❖​ Mac an Ghaill ​ Studied African-Caribbeans and Asian students in a sixth form. Some teachers held racist attitudes. ​ In response, they developed survival strategies such as forming peer groups based on ethnicity and, in some cases, subcultural identities ❖​ Cashmore and Troyna (1990) ​ Argue that there will be a tendency of ethnic minorities to turn inwards and seek support from their own cultural group. Ties to religion/culture Asia ❖​ Asian Minorities ​ Differences such as country, religion and culture amongst Asian cultures. ​ Modood found that differences can be very specific ​ E.g Shia and Sunni Muslims, Koreans, Indians. ❖​ Ghumann (1999) found that first generation Asian parents in the UK in the 50/60s were focused on transmitting their key values during primary socialisation ​ Children should be obedient, loyal and respectful to elders ​ Parents were considered to know the child best ​ Choice of marriage was up to parent ​ Religious training was very important as it reinforced respect for family ​ Mother tongue was seen as crucial in maintaining links. Bilingual children ❖​ Also found that second-generation Asians still had these values as norms today ❖​ Many are still socialised with focuses on extended family, duty, loyalty, honour and religious commitments ❖​ Miri Song (2003) ​ Studied British Chinese. Found Chinese parents are very influential in reinforcing Chinese values by positively sanctioning kids who help with family business. Seen as more Chinese. ​ Adopted the cultural characteristics of family solidarity and loyalty ❖​ Continued support for arranged marriages ❖​ Hennink (1999) ​ 75% of Sikh and 85% of Muslim teenage girls expected arranged marriage ❖​ Ghumann (1999) ​ Noted that asians are socialised into a collectivists family culture that stresses obedience, loyalty and respect for elders Religion ❖​ Most important influence in terms of identity for some ethnic minority groups ❖​ 32% of adults who identified as Christian saidl c they practised it ❖​ Up to 80% of muslims celebrate and practise regularly ​ Black Christians are 3x more likely to attend church then white ❖​ O’Beime 2004 ​ Asiansm especially muslims, ranked religion/family as equal marker of identity. ​ African-Caribbeans and Black Africans ranked religion as the third most important ​ White Christians very rarely marked religion as central to their identity Education ❖​ Mac an Ghail (1991) found that some teachers have racists attitudes ​ In response, pupils develop survival strategies to resist negative labelling e.g ethnic minority peer groups  ❖​ Gypsy, Roma traveller children have the lowest educational achievement. Due to high absence and drop-out rate ❖​ Bhopal found that GRT children are more like to drop out due to the finding the school curriculum exclusionary and due to experiencing racism due to mainstream schooling ❖​ Attainment eight (passes in 8 GCSE’s) Peer groups ❖​ Cultural comfort zone = people from similar social and ethnic backgrounds tend to come together in social situations ❖​ Sewell studied by young black boys fall in education and get involved in gang culture ​ 1. Systems based on white middle-class culture. Low expectations from teachers for black boys ​ 2. Often concerned with their image within a group - anti-school culture to fit into. Behaving well is seen as more white or feminine ​ 3. Peer groups develop coping strategies to help overcome white dominance in schools. Street languages/rules. E.g consumer culture based on designer clothes Media ❖​ Use of social media has allowed for long-distance connection. Improves contact with those of the same ethnicity or family relations in parts of the world ❖​ Media representations may be problematic as they are shaped by what the majority white audience what to read, see and hear ❖​ May be contributing to maintenance of racist stereotypes ❖​ Best and Kellner ​ Researched black music i.e rap hip hop ​ Argue that rap music gives young black people the opportunity to express anger about racism, specifically police harassment but also economic/social deprivation esp in black neighbourhoods ​ Powerful source of black identity - allows marginalised communities to have a voice ​ Argued that it promotes misogyny, violence and materialistic greed Workplace ❖​ Found that some ethnic minorities are found to be more present in high-status high-paying jobs but a disproportionate number are in low-paying jobs ❖​ Hudson et al ​ Note ethnic minorities experience a range of discrimination and barriers that prevent the improvement of the workplace ​ Bullying and harassment ​ Concrete ceiling = women of an ethnic minority can’t see jobs above them ❖​ Rao and Stevenson ​ Ethnic minorities feel they have to work longer/harder for promotions, respect and recognition Women in Asian Families ❖​ Studies of domestic labour within Asian families suggest that women are expected to take responsibility to do housework and childcare ❖​ Brah ​ Single women often share responsibility for looking after younger siblings, nieces and nephews ❖​ Mistake to assume all are patriarchal - women have alot of power in domestic sphere and economic decision-making  ❖​ Private negotiations which precede an arranged marriage ❖​ Central role in upholding family honour ❖​ Pakistani and Bangladeshi culture ​ In some families, men are awarded more freedom because women as perceived as subordinate to men ​ Reputation and honour is extremely important ​ Many parents therefore come into conflict with their daughter over issues such as education, boyfriends ❖​ Muslim Femininity ​ Tend to stress the control of females because its believed the future of the community depends on them becoming wives/mothers ​ Socialising the next generation into key Muslim values ❖​ Generational conflict ​ Anwar suggests that the family can be the site of conflict between generations ​ Dating - disapproved by older generations ​ Drury (1991) ​ 1/5 of girls in her Asian sample were secretly dating boys. Some were going to the pub and drinking alcohol ​ “I would like to have a boyfriend and I would like to have a love marriage but the consequences are too great. Gossip spreads and you can lose everything. Everyone in the family can be hurt and nobody will want to marry me. I think Sikh boys in England are given too much freedom. They can go out with white girls yet they are expected to marry an innocent Indian girl.” Nationality ❖​ Formal legal category - people from a specific ‘nation state’ ​ Nation state refers to a country; officially recognised, power, territory ect ❖​ Nationality is also accompanied by legal rights such as passport, right to vote, right to marry, obeying the law of the land ❖​ National identity (DIFFERENT) = a sense of nation as a cohesive whole ​ Traditions, culture, language, politics ​ Often seen as a whole country but also individual; sport, anthem, flag, language, culture ❖​ Anderson (1983) ​ Nation is an imagined community as members won’t meet most of their fellow members. ​ Social construction - made ourselves ​ Made easier (facilitated) by the printed language such as English media covering English victims more than other countries ​ Means the media plays a huge role in constructing national/regional identity. ​ Too big for everyone to know eachother but shares values ​ “The media enables people (of a nation or region) to feel a part of a coherent, meaningful and homogenous community” ❖​ British Identity can be confused for English Identity but there are clear distinctions between Wales, Scotland and Ireland ​ Condor suggests that the Welsh/Scottish have stronger identities ​ English have a less strong identity - some are reluctant to accept as people associate it with bad things e.g George Cross and racism. More inclined to say they’re British ❖​ Scottish Independence (2014) ​ Majority voted to tay in the UK but demonstrated the differences ​ Devolution, economic crises, migration = English national identity has strengthened. If it’s perceived to be a threat, more significant ❖​ In subordination historically - devolution - leading to being distinguished  ❖​ Sardar (2002) ​ Says the world is in a global identity crisis - many old divides broken down ​ Britain struggling to become more American or European ​ ‘Englishness’ is based on historical traditions so it’s hard to find a new identity and we also used to steal other people’s culture as an Empire ​ Strengthened through far right groups such as the EDL (English Defence League) ​ Embrace identity to focus on common humanity Cultural identity ❖​ Cultural homogenisation = accept global culture + we will become similar ❖​ Cultural hybridity = take in some parts of global culture to become hybrid ❖​ Cultural resistance = resisting globalisation to protect global heritage to become more traditional and nationalistic ❖​ British Values ​ Since 2014, we have to promote them. Individual liberty, respect, tolerance, democracy and rule of law. ​ Clearly in the curriculum - history, English literature, religion. ​ ‘PREVENT’ government strategy (2011) which prevents radicalisation ❖​ Kennedy and Danks ​ Suggest national identity is being undermined by globalisation (social and economic) ​ Especially American companies taking over from British companies - factories abroad not in the UK ​ Erodes British identity as our leisure time is more global and less ‘british’ - culturally homogenous Immigration and Religion ❖​ To gain british citizenship, you must score 75% on the Life in the UK test ❖​ Functionalists argue that migrants to a country should assimilate ❖​ Absorb and learn the norms and values - if they assimilate then they can become functional and productive ❖​ Christianity (Protestantism) is present in many of our national celebrations such as royal weddings, remembrances, ect English/British ❖​ Some British-born minorities find it hard to identify with the ideas of englishness or britishness as it tends to be associated with whiteness ​ Christianity and a culture they may not adopt even though they’re born in england ❖​ Some british born minorities form subcultural identities or adopt norms/values that tend to be closer to cultural roots but also social class backgrounds ​ The way minorities view themselves ​ Mainstream white-British identity ❖​ Multiculturalism ​ Hewitt (2005) researched the idea of white backlash against multiculturalism. Policies which have been created for equality but is considered ‘unfair’ to the white community ​ White working class individual has often reacted with anger at perceived positive discrimination in favour of ethnic minorities Resistance or hybrid ❖​ Some ethnic identities feel as if they are becoming more hybrid due to influencers  ❖​ Not just mixing two cultures, it's more complex - the overlap of two cultures and how it affects your culture and norms/values ❖​ Modood (1997) ​ Found generational differences within the concept of identity. ​ Second gen ethnic minorities from Asia and African-Caribbean backgrounds felt more British than their parents ​ Still felt ethnic origin was an important part of their identity ​ However young British Pakistanis/Bangladeshis were more likely to subscribe to a traditional Asian identity ​ Shape domestic and personal lives on basis of their parent;s value - obligation, duty, community, honour ❖​ Back (1996) ​ Ethnographic (Research of cultures) study of two council estates in London ​ Black youths and white youths developed hybrid identities ​ Local youths from all backgrounds developed a shared identity based on mixed ethnicity ​ Neighbourhood nationalism - solidarity within the local area ❖​ Brah (1996) ​ Suggests that young British Asians are skilled national code-switchers ​ Switch their identities with ease e.g British with coworkers and Asian with the family ​ More appropriate way to see their identity rather then a cross ​ Splitting is misleading - not homogenous ​ Research does not support that they experience culture clash as they successfully negotiate their own identity ❖​ Johal (1998) ​ Second and third gen young British Asians have a duel identity called Brasian ​ Inherited asian heritage (home environment) but develop a white mask which is used in public spaces e.g school to connect with white peers ❖​ Ghuman ​ Found Hindu and Sikh girls compartmentalise aspects of their daily life ​ At home, they act as obedient and respectful daughters. ​ Wearing specific clothing and speaking in Punjabi/Hindi ​ At school, they interact in the same way as their white peers ​ Uniform and speaking English Globalisation ❖​ Globalisation has encouraged ethnic hybridity ​ Youth of all ethnic origins enjoy fast food outlets ​ Cultural products into different ethnic cultures to enjoy ​ Interracial friendships and global popularity of black musical genres. Led to white people borrowing and playing with black language/styles ❖​ Postmodernists argue in our globalised and highly media-saturated word that it is about choice ❖​ Everyone can create their own identity ​ Hybridity means ethnicity is becoming less clearcut and significant ❖​ Some will disagree as they are still huge sources of discriminatory identity Disability ❖​ Disability = the consequence of an impairment. Can be physical, mental, sensory, emotional, developmental or cognitive. Either president from birth (congenital) or occur during a lifetime History of disability  ❖​ Oliver (1990) - Prior industrial revolution = disabled people could participate in work/economic activities. Largely rural and agriculture small scale ❖​ Ryan and Thomas (1986) - after the revolution and factory work, disabled people face challenges as it is less flexible and faster ❖​ Heavy industry ​ Based on coal and iron in the 19th century - reinforced employment exclusion ​ Worth of individuals in accordance with economic value ❖​ 1834 Poor Law ​ Disabled people were incarcerated in workhouses rather then society providing a supportive environment - attempt by the government to deter pauperism (people not working) ​ “If labouring under disease of the body or mind, the pauper shall be placed either in the sick ward or the word for lunatics and idiots not dangerous” (poor law quote) ​ Lunatic asylums ​ Harsh, basic conditions which gave inmates bread, gruel, little medical diagnoses and bad treatment ​ Designed to be harsh to deter paupers. Even chair backs ​ Men and women are kept separate to ‘make more paupers’ ​ Children and parents kept apart causing trauma and distress ​ Physical disabilities were subjected to crude methods of treatment and restraint. Argued that the treatment raised ethical questions and paved the way for more humane approaches ❖​ Positive steps towards = 1995 Disability Discrimination Act. Was passed to give legal protection and enforce rights for disabled people. ​ Profile has been raised with events such as the Paralympics - awareness in a positive light ❖​ Cultural relativism = ours norms and values are determined by the culture we live in ​ Definitions of disability vary as it is culturally relative ​ Differs across time and different societies ​ Culturally determined e.g dyslexia is a learning disability/historically just poor effort and spelling ❖​ Social construction = not an innate concept but has arisen through processes in our society ​ If it varies by place and by time. ​ Key issues ❖​ Not a fixed state - commonly experienced as a process or state. People who are congenital but majority acquires a disability through life ❖​ Under 1/5 of disabled people were born with it. ❖​ Moves in and out of disability is not equal across all social groups - people that are from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are at greater risk ❖​ More likely to have: ​ Lower incomes than the majority ​ Lack of employment ​ Greater poverty and high extra costs (Berthaud 1993) ​ Disabled children - susceptible to poverty ❖​ Mental health disabilities ​ Most economic disadvantages and sigma - exclusion ​ Recent media is raising awareness to lessen the stigma ❖​ Oliver (1990) ​ Argues that society is organised around an able-bodied paradigm (pattern) that constructs disability as a deficit or lack ❖​ Shakespeare and Barnes see the identity of disabled people as a social construction - disabled by society, especially negative stereotypes. E.g built environments ❖​ Media  ​ Promote disablist stereotypes - Children in Need promote the idea that it is tragic and deserves pity from the able-bodied ​ Rarely represent individuals who ‘just so happen to have a disability’ ❖​ Workplace ​ Employers are often reluctant to employ them. Up to 6x more likely to be refused an interview. Economically disadvantaged ❖​ 2011 - 1788 recorded disability hate crimes in the UK ❖​ 8/10 disabled children in the UK have been bullied ❖​ Goffman- discrimination disabled individuals face has a significant effect on self-esteem ❖​ Disabled identity can become a master status self-fulfilling prophecy Medical model ❖​ Interactionism: ❖​ Approach favours medical/technical solutions that emphasise difference rather than promoting inclusion ❖​ Waddell says it implies the disabled person is a passive victim ❖​ Traditional model which assumes it’s a personal tragedy ❖​ Assumes disabled people are dependent on the able-bodied and are unable to function properly without constant help Social model ❖​ Argues that discrimination can be institutional, environmental, attitudinal ❖​ Developed by disabled people themselves ❖​ Oliver (1996) says that society disabled physically impaired people. Excluded from full participation in society by stereotypical attitudes and held by able-bodied people ❖​ Interactionism ​ Goffman is a key theorist ​ Scott’s Blind Personality study ​ Key ideas consist of = views disability as a social process rather than a characteristic of individuals, argues that the able-bodied assume the disabled are incapable of having normal social relations Disability and Marxism ❖​ Marx drew a relationship between physical disability and capitalism - e.g victims of industry. ❖​ Navarro (1978) ​ “The effects of capitalism deflects away from the economic origins of disease” ❖​ Marxists look at the relationship between socioeconomic factors and health ❖​ Studies in GB have found a persistent relationship between occupational class and mortality/morbidity (townsend 1988, benzeval 1995) ❖​ People from manual working classes are 2x as likely to die before retirement age and 2x as likely to be suffering from a longstanding illness ❖​ “Cripples” are due to poor working conditions ❖​ The Bourgeoisie cause starvation ❖​ Doyal (1979) ​ Argues theres a relationship between capitalism and impairment through consumption, industrial pollution, and stress ❖​ Finklestein ​ Says our negative cultural attitudes towards disability is due to capitalism’s emphasis on work as a source of identity, status and power ​ Pre-industria l societies - disabled people weren’t treated differently or segregated as people worked on farms ​ Responsible for a shift in cultural attitudes as capitalist societies needed an able-bodied, healthy workforce to create profits for the ruling class - disabled people became an economic burden. Workhouses.  ❖​ Social class also affects children’s health - e.g infant mortality is 2x as likely for babies born into manual classes ❖​ Salway (2007) ​ Struggle for disabled people to retain paid work. Esp in environments where work=status=validation, esp working class men Disability and Functionalism ❖​ Parsons (1951) - one of the first sociologists to see sickness as a social state ❖​ Viewed it as a form of deviance which posed a threat to how society functions - links to the organic analogy. He had diabetes and felt this impaired his ability to function ❖​ Sick role ​ Argues that the sick and disabled are exempt from normal social roles ​ Must accept/seek medical help ​ Person is not responsible for being sick, entitled to withdraw from normal activities and must agree to become the patient. ❖​ Dr. role ​ Doctors have privileged access to a patient’s body and can help wider society by acting as a gatekeeper ​ Who’s actually sick and who’s not ❖​ Criticism: doctor/patient interactions are rarely as smooth as Parsons’ model suggests according to sociological studies ❖​ Shakespeare (1996) ​ Disabled people often face major obstacles to forming a positive disabled identity - often socialised to be seen as inferior ​ Need positive role models ​ Able-bodied society is used to reacting with pity, avoidance and awkwardness Age - Social construct ❖​ Sociologists recognise age has key biological characteristics such as grey hair, wrinkles, physical/mental decline ❖​ View theses characteristics vary across societies and time ❖​ People are expected to act at different ages ❖​ Some extent age is socially constructed ❖​ Chronological approach to age refers to the way that the years bring different roles, statuses an norms ​ Life course people pass through: traditionally seen as childhood, adulthood and elder. ​ Bradley = five major generational stages of age identity. Childhood, youth, young adulthood, middle age, old age. Lifecourse ❖​ Lifecourse ​ Children - regarded as dependent on older groups for protection and survival. ​ Adults - children go through a rite of passage/ceremony when they are instructed on adult ways. Taught how to become hunters or endure skill tests. Girls will learn about sexual matters so they can become mothers and wives after puberty. Straight from childhood to adulthood ​ Elders - ageing requires greater status and power as you have more experience and wisdom ❖​ Childhood ❖​ Biological maturation, the idea of childhood is socially constructed. ​ Special, innocent and vulnerable in which children need to be protected by their parents. Laws regulating the quality of parenting  ​ Guidelines on acceptable behaviour for children from 5-18, they are in school ​ Age you stop being a child varies culture to culture ​ E.G UK criminal responsibility 10, Sweden is 15, low as 6 in some US states ​ Stereotypes: excited, dependent, innocent, family-orientated, interactive ​ Often seen as little angels or devils ​ Presented negatively (Muncie 2004 highlights how youths in the media are represented as deviant/troublesome) and positively (cult of youth where it is seen as ideal in advertising) ❖​ Youth ❖​ Stage between childhood and adulthood - a recent social construction from western society ​ Long period of education and training (secondary socialisation) ​ Some freedoms/responsibilities of adults but also restricted like children. ​ Previously, adolescents were not seen as separate from adults but since WW2 and consumer culture - teenager culture began to develop ​ Stereotypes: moody, emotional, ungrateful, apathetic, irrational ❖​ Young Adulthood ❖​ Focused on leaving the home and middle age ​ Wallace - private and public markers which signify the beginning of adult identity ​ Private markers might include first time having sex, cigarette, ect ​ Public markers might include voting, a job, married, moving out, ect ​ Stereotypes: figuring things out, middle ground, mature, empathetic ❖​ Middle Age ❖​ Difficult to define from about 35 to 50 ​ Physical indicators include greying hair and menopause ​ Social indicators: ​ Bradley (1996) claims that in capitalist societies they have a higher status as they have more privileges (then youth and elderly) ​ Jacques (1965) theorises the mid-life crisis when people become aware of their loss of youth and approach to old age/death. Leads to anxiety, behaviour changes such as stereotypically - sexually cheating, divorce, gambling, drugs, careless spending ​ Stereotypes: sociable, mid-life crisis, grasping onto youth, successful ❖​ Old Age ❖​ People tend to retire in their 60s so this decade is the typical start ​ Pilcher - argues that due to increasing life expectancy and differences in generational attitudes, there are now variations ​ Young old (65-74), middle-aged old (75-84), old old (85+) ​ Old age doesn’t grant status in the UK unlike traditional society ​ Loss of work due to retirement can cause with self-esteem decline, social contracts and income, increase in depression ​ Ageism discrimination ​ Stereotypes: poor health, unstable, confused, needy, dependent, outdated ​ In the media: ​ Lambert (1984) found that 50% of programs included people 60+. Most were politicians, businessmen, and experts. Almost exclusively men ​ Biggs (1993) found that sitcoms tend to portray old peoples feeble, vague and forgetful ​ Corner (1999) found older people also identified themselves with negative language which reflects the media’s terms ​ Concerned about being a burden and being defined by ill-health ❖​ Ageism - expressed in three ways ❖​ 1. Institutionalised ​ Embedded in organisations and legal practices. Officially outlawed in the 2010 Equality Act, people see the elderly as less suitable for employment. Assumed to be physically slow, not adaptable to change and lacking in mental health  ❖​.2. Stereotypical prejudices ​ Everyday interactions with old people - assume a person’s competency is limited by age. Elderly often described as derogatory/condescending ways ❖​ 3.Assumptions ​ The old are vulnerable, dependent on younger people, growing number, and bad slang terms such as “grumpy old man” or “old bat” Age and Agents ❖​ Peer groups ​ Most influential on the youth from about 5-18 - especially around 13-17 ❖​ Workplace ❖​ Retirement age is about 70, the workplace clearly says these people are old. Prejudice against young people too, seen through minimum wage - reinforces the view that young people aren’t adults yet. ​ Ages 16-25 have the highest rate of unemployment ​ Reserve army of labour = a Marxist term which refers to the youth/elderly and their discrimination in the workplace. In COVID they were most likely to be made redundant. People who will work for little money on little notice ​ Willis (1984) suggests that unemployment prevents young people from moving into adult roles. Unable to take on family responsibilities and gaining ‘adult status’. Can become bored/demoralised ❖​ Family ❖​ Unlike western countries, traditional Asian cultures place a heavy emphasis on filial piety - the expectation that kids will help parents in old age ❖​ In the midst of demographic and cultural changes, Asian governments continue to promote the idea that families should be primarily responsible for the care of older family members. ​ Adult children get pressured to fulfil filial piety - work demands, children demands can find it emotionally difficult to put their parents/grandparents in institutional care ​ Integrated care - allows for older people to age in place in their own homes. Health/social care needs without being institutionalised. Decreases the need for the government to spend money on institutional age care Age and Theorists ❖​ Functionalism (biological approaches) ​ Hendricks = ageing brings physical and psychological decline and therefore changing social roles have to take this into account ​ Parsons = society needs to find roles suitable for people in old age but they should remove productive working roles if they can’t perform them. ​ Says age inequality was inevitable to some extent - biologically determined to undertake certain roles necessary for society to run well ​ Cummings and Henry (1961) = disengagement theory that the elderly need to disengage from work/politics for young people to take over the roles. Essential for progression ❖​ Interactionism (microsociological) ​ Havinghurst (1961)’s activity theory - high level of activity in old age increases personal satisfaction. Says that disengagement reduces it and needs to experience new roles instead of being pushed out. ​ Varies per individual - personal matter. ​ Hockey and James says that old age is infantilised. Compared to children and labelled as a homogenous group. May resist being labelled and marginalised to resist stereotype ​ Prout and James says that age categories are socially constructed ​ Can include different retirement ages, different children roles, rites of passage vary ❖​ Marxism  ​ Focus on poverty and inequality - those of the working class are more likely to suffer from poverty in old age ​ See the young and old are vulnerable to exploitation in the workplace and that the state overemphasised the issue of the ageing population such as being a burden on the NHS or public services e.g bedblockers in the winter months ​ Vincent - state and welfare. ​ Should contribute more to looking after the elderly by taxing businesses and the wealthy ​ Bond - state and pensions ​ Government pensions are inadequate e.g working class salaries are too low to save up for retirement and private pensions. More likely to suffer from poverty in old age ❖​ Postmodernism ​ Life stages are becoming blurred - attitudes are changing towards ageing. ​ Many people begin to reject their chronological ageing; consumer culture increases which offers older people more choices regarding how they live out late age identity ​ Blaikie ​ The grey pound is a valuable asset = consumer culture has increased and links to active ageing such as gym membership, well being and exercise/health movement ​ Featherstone and Hepworth ​ Life course has begun to be deconstructed - blurring. Constant messages from the media to stay young and more likely to reject chronological age for our identity Sexuality ❖​ A person’s sexual orientation - homosexual, heterosexual, asexual, ect. Spectrum and we all fall on it. ❖​ Also implies sexual desire; society seeks to control it ❖​ We are in a heteronormative society where it is the norm and promoted ❖​ Heteronormativity = the expectation that heterosexuality is natural and normal, therefore needs no explanation. ​ Cis-gender describes people whose biological body matches their gender identity. ​ Transgender describes where one’s biological sex does not align with their gender. ​ Intersex are people who were born with ambiguous sex which can include organs, chromosomes or genitalia. ❖​ Weeks (1986) = ​ “Sexual identification is a strange thing.” - can be more complex. Many individuals in the LGBT community enjoy gay “culture” like films, friendships or night life but don’t have same-sex relations. Some don’t identify as gay but have same-sex relations. ​ Sexuality is a social and historical construct, taking on different meanings depending on the society and time period. Social construct and culturally relative. ❖​ Mainstream british norms ​ Monogamous, heteronormativity. People who tried to live differently were treated negatively e.g meant that men participating in gay relationships were chemically castrated known as Turing’s Law (Alan Turing, this law made it possible to historically pardon men for homosexual acts which have been legalised.) ​ Homophobic language such as fag or poof - common in institutions. Bullying in schools for people labelled as gay (even if they weren’t) ​ AIDS and Margaret Thatcher - Section 28. ​ Stopped the promotion of homosexual activity. 1988 - 2003 ❖​ Social construct ​ Many view sexuality as biological - instinct.  ​ Sociologists reject this and regard it as socially constructed - learned through culture. ❖​ Margaret Mead observed that the Samoans had much more open/liberal views of sex and allowed young people to experiment with guys/girls without any fear or anxiety. Timeline ❖​ Illegal to discriminate (Equality Act 2010) ❖​ Age of consent equalised in 2000 ❖​ Schools in Britain must include LGBT relations ❖​ Civil Partnerships - recognised by law in 2004 ❖​ Marriage in 2013, came into effect in 2014. ❖​ High profile celebrity weddings have helped lessen the stigma. ❖​ Office of National Statistics 2019 - 2.7% identify as non-heteronormative ❖​ Adoption & Children Act 2002 (into effect 2005) - same legal rights as heterosexuals. ❖​ Brunei ​ Strict new laws that make gay sex punishable by stoning to death ​ Widespread condemnation ​ New penal code which also provides amputation of thieves, whipping of people wearing non-gender normative clothes, in April 20 despite international condemnation ​ Said people were ‘misunderstanding’ and the kingdom said that the criminalisation of adultery/sodomy is to safeguard family lineage/marriage to mostly Muslim women. ​ Penal sentences of hadd - stoning to death/amputation - require high evidence e.g lots of witnesses with high moral standing and circumstantial evidence ❖​ Corrective Rape ​ South Africa rapes gay men and lesbian women to “cure them” of their sexual orientation. ​ 2008, Eudy Simelane was a lesbian who was gang raped and stabbed to death. Her naked body was dumped in a river. Was a soccer player training to be a referee and was targeted because of her open sexuality. Agents and Sexuality Religion ❖​ Heteronormativity - many forbid homosexuality and sex outside of marriage. (E.g Catholicism). ❖​ Feminists argue that religion oppresses female sexuality by imposing a strict norm of staying a virgin until marriage and being ‘sexually passive’ ❖​ Functionalists believe that the control and channelling of sexuality is crucial to the continuation of society ​ Stable, nuclear family for children to be born into is key for a functional society - a monogamous relationship between husband and wife. ❖​ Postmodernists argue that this debate is irrelevant and out-dated due to secularism and more choice in identity constructing. Religion has less of an influence Media ❖​ Homosexual and heterosexual relationships are shown differently. Very few main gay characters. ❖​ Such as OITNB, Game of Thrones, Killing Eve, CMBYN. ❖​ HIV/AIDS - early media prejudice towards it which resulted in stigma. Initially labelled as a ‘gay disease or plague’ Law ❖​ Decriminalised in 1967. The age of consent was still 21. ❖​ 1988 - Section 28 came into force until 2003. Prevented local institutions from presenting gay relationships in a positive light. Many teachers felt like they were not allowed to talk about homosexuality with students.  ❖​ Last two decades have witnessed much more equality. Sexuaity Studies ❖​ Quinn (2001) ​ Studied same-sex relationships of people in tribal communities. Many Native American tribes celebrated 2 male marriage with the “wife” being more feminine (berdache) and with women there was a “husband” who was a dominant amazon man who was often a female warrior. ​ Some sub-Saharan african people have man-boy marriage ceremonies. ​ Boy-wives are between 12-20 and are often treated the same way as a female ❖​ Plummer (1996) ❖​ The Homosexual Career ​ Used homosexuality as a process - men who accept the label will seek out others and join a subculture where stereotypes become the norm. ​ Peer group behaviour reaffirms/reinforces sexuality. ❖​ McIntosh (1996) ❖​ The Homosexual Role ​ In western cultures, the role of the homosexual male involves certain expectations and cultural characteristics. E.g more effeminate mannerisms, higher voice, attention to appearance ​ Argued that once a mae accepts this label he will fulfil these expectations ​ Supported their argument from married men who saw themselves as straight but admitted attraction to other men. Did not show any other “signs” of homosexuality. ​ Males she studied who were “out” did fulfil these expectations ❖​ Rich (1980) ❖​ Radical feminist approach ​ Argues that women’s sexuality are oppressed by men in a patriarchal society through institutions such as marriage, sexual violence and objectification. ​ She uses the term “compulsory heterosexuality” to describe the way women are socialised to be subordinated and heterosexual role ensuring their availability to men ​ Believe that we aren’t inherently heterosexual but this is forced upon them ❖​ Functionalism ​ Believe in biology and that homosexuality is non-functional - result of poor socialisation ​ Support more conservative views on preventing homosexuality in the media or education e.g Section 28 ❖​ Marxism ​ Heterosexuality is something promoted by capitalism ​ Argue that in a non-capitalist society, people would be free to adopt any gender/sexuality - homophobia is based on the ruling class ideology which is designed to divide society Social Class ❖​ Refers to the socioeconomic status and identity that are attached to a person because of their job ​ Hard to define - a person’s sense of identity may differ from how they measure the importance of social class ❖​ Government categorises people into 8 social classes; known as the National Statistics Classification. ​ 1. Higher managerial, administrative and professional occupations ​ 2. Lower managerial, administrative and professional occupations ​ 3. Intermediate occupations ​ 4. Small employers and own account workers ​ 5. Lower supervisory and technical occupations  ​ 6. Semi-routine occupations ​ 7. Routine occupations ​ 8. Never worked/long-term unemployed ❖​ Differentiates between jobs on the basis of employment relations (if the individual is self-employed, employs others or is an employee) and market conditions (how much someone earns, promotion opportunities, job security). ❖​ Sociologists found that those who share similar socioeconomic backgrounds also share similar education/experience/lifestyle/lookouts ❖​ Evidence exists that distinct inequalities (e.g infant mortality, life expectancy and educational achievement) of children relate to the distribution of wealth and poverty - underpins and influences life chances, style, health and educational outcomes ❖​ 2007 Guardian Poll ​ Shows that Britain is dominated by class division as 89% said they felt judged by class. Key identity factor. ❖​ 9/30 children in a classroom live in poverty ❖​ Cultural Capital ​ Bourdieu (1984) suggests that each social class has it’s own values, tastes and preferences. ❖​ Class Consciousness = we are socialised from birth through our friends, family and school to be aware of who “we” are compared to who “they” are. ❖​ Upper class ​ Is about 1% ​ Upper class examples - high culture activities, designer clothes, money in various places, areas, private education, ect ​ Includes family ties, ‘kinship’ ties (contacts/networks)), value traditions, breeding e.g marrying into same/lower class, background, self-selecting and closed groups to outsiders - social closure. ​ Private schools promote values such as conservatism, tradition, nationalism, privilege, hierarchy, authority. ❖​ Middle Class ​ An intermediate, very broad group which has seen large growths in recent decades ​ Cultural capital - more awareness of the class system. ​ Children’s education with good areas ​ Being ‘comfortable’ with finances but can indulge - same with houses e.g owning and not renting, routine holidays every year, values high culture products more, education and democracy. ​ Focuses primarily on the home - suburbs, encourage children to do well academically. 80% of Uni students are from middle class backgrounds. Heavily value meritocracy (high position achieved by effort/ability). Value deferred gratification (more willing to wait for rewards e.g financial whilst qualifications are being achieved) ❖​ Savage (1995) defines 4 distinct middle class groups ​ Professionals (i.e doctors, lawyers. Long successful education. Value knowledge, qualifications and education) ​ Managers (i.e less qualified then professionals but work their way up, less secure jobs due to factors like globalisation/mergers) ​ Self-Employed Business Owners (individualistic, anti-benefits culture, great faith in meritocracy) ​ White Collar Workers (i.e clerks, secretaries. Often kids of manual workers. Pay/conditions are superior.) ❖​ Working Class ​ Financial struggles, little education, value anti-school subculture, reliance on government welfare e.g bursaries, benefits, free school meals, council houses ​ Old working class = factory, mining, cleaning. Manual labour and staying in their class; dangerous nature. Traditional. Very strong sense of identity - being proud of being working class. Labour party, trade unions  ​Close knit extended kin networks such as extended family - parents nearby, wider kin help out with life (childcare, finances, work). Declining due to the same in manual industries - solidarity weakened. ​ Collectivist culture - working together. ​ 1984 miners strike ( ​ New working class = community/home-focused, less value on education and more on popular culture. Theories ❖​ Theory = explanation of society using data from research ❖​ Consensus theory = societies work together when we agree on fundamental principles e.g social norms ❖​ Conflict theory = social inequalities happen due to ideologies about inferiority e.g competing and incompatible interests ❖​ Social action theory = how we interpret the world and make it meaningful - we create society, society doesn’t create us ❖​ Structural theory = sees society as a whole system. It influences behaviour external to individuals ❖​ Action theory = individuals make their own choices (agency) and are not controlled by society ❖​ Macro = large-scale theory ❖​ Micro = small-scale theory Functionalism ❖​ Structural theory and consensus theory - conformity ❖​ Durkheim describes it as feeling a sense of social solidarity and concerned about anomie - feeling a loss of belonging leads to instability and conflict ❖​ Institutions perform positive functions to provide social order ❖​ The six agents of socialisation work together to form norms/values ❖​ Most wrote in the 1950’s - different to today ❖​ Organic analogy ​ Parsons created the idea that society is like an organ system - part gets sick, can’t function properly ​ Anomie creates normlessness and war countries are in a perpetual state of anomie. ​ More likely to commit crime in anomie - Le Suicide 1897. Traditional Marxism ❖​ Structural and conflict theory ❖​ Karl Marx argued that class divisions made people who benefitted from the economy (capitalists) ❖​ Marx is anti-bourgeoisie and believed they exploited the proletariat and that communism would eventually become a revolution  ❖​ Economy directly impacts society and vice versa ❖​ Criticism ​ Too deterministic (narrow minded) and concentrated on the fall of capitalism ​ Soviet Union - evidence of communism not working ​ Higher affluence in capitalist societies (people mostly get by) and relatively conflict-free Neomarxism ❖​ 20th century theories which updated marxism ❖​ Humanistic Marxism ​ Gramsci (1971) saw that social control came from ideology and less economy ​ Hegemony = domination of upperclass ideology in society - the lower classes consent - consent more powerful than coercion. ​ Can’t rise up due to a need to figure out proletarian hegemony (own idea of how to organise society) ❖​ Structuralist Marxism ​ Althusser (1970) believed that capitalism survived due to institutions installing bourgeoisie ideas and justification in the media, education and workplaces ​ Above is ISA - Ideological State Apparatuses ​ We ignore capitalism because we can’t see alternatives - false class consciousness to divert attention ​ Economy and politics + ideologies - when they contradict, no more capitalism (too hard to contradict though) Weberian Theory ❖​ Conflict theory ❖​ Status and power doesn’t always equal economy ❖​ Need to look at both the whole of society and individuals ❖​ Life chances impact opportunities - location, education, family, childhood, desires, context, ect  ❖​ Criticised capitalism but doesn’t want to abolish ❖​ Social Action Theory ​ Human behaviour has a cause (behaviour is shaped by structure) and a meaning (attaching behaviours to meanings) ​ Four types of meaning in social action: ​ Instrumentally Rational (most efficient way) ​ Value Rational (important for own sake) ​ Traditional (based off habit) ​ Affectual (based off emotions) ​ Criticisms include too much focus on individuality, difficult to class actions into 4 categories as they often have multiple reasons Interactionism ❖​ Action theory and microtheory ❖​ How individuals interpret the social world - influenced by others so it’s very individualise ❖​ Norms and values transmitted by socialisation is a fluid process where people redefine and renegotiate them through interactions with other - constant series of action and reaction ❖​ Individuals are actors who always adjust their behaviour to the actions of other humans (Dramaturgy) ❖​ Scott (1969) ​ Observed eye hospital’s visually impaired. Staff labelled them as helpless so they became more ‘disabled’ because of the way they are perceived. They became less assertive, more passive and reserved due to this label and developed a ‘blind personality’. Labelling power. If they had been pushed to be independent this would’ve been reversed. ❖​ Labelling Theory ​ Becker (1963) saw that our ‘sense of self’ is affected by labelling. We categorise and attach identities as a result. This allows us to meet others with the same labels which creates subcultures. ​ Self-fulfilling prophecy to an extent. If very negative/positive it can became a master status and only trait e.g murderers. ​ Offers an insight into smaller groups of people in depth but can be too microsociological ​ May fail to consider other influences on an individuals behaviour (they may not be aware of it) Postmodernism ❖​ Believes that the era of modernity came to an end around 2000 ❖​ Rise in secularism (science>religion), capitalism and democratic states (not kingdoms) ❖​ New social development such as media images and fragmentation due to agency which leads to more individualism as we have stepped away from norms and values e.g gender ❖​ Defining factors gender/class/ethnicity affect us far less then before and you have a greater choice of who you are - diversity. ❖​ Choice ​ Capitalism has led to consumer culture. We have a wider selection of products available to us which leads to more distinctiveness among ourselves ​ Secularism gives us a choice in individual perspective and freedom to believe in our own norms and values ❖​ Trust ​ Secularism leads to rational thought so we trust less in theories ​ Fails to explain issues such as mental health/crime rises ​ Not a perfect dystopian future - science created more environmental issues and capitalism which leads to inequality  ❖​ Focus on changes happening worldwide - highlights the complexity that humans face which isn't just gender/class/ethnicity ❖​ Ignores the interaction between individuals and social institutions ❖​ Systematic research - uses all available research ❖​ Social structures are still important as it ties to our labels and identities but we are less individual then postmodernism says ​ Interactionism ❖​ Action theory and microtheory ❖​ How individuals interpret the social world - influenced by others so it’s very individualise ❖​ Norms and values transmitted by socialisation is a fluid process where people redefine and renegotiate them through interactions with other - constant series of action and reaction ❖​ Individuals are actors who always adjust their behaviour to the actions of other humans (Dramaturgy) ❖​ Scott (1969) ​ Observed eye hospital’s visually impaired. Staff labelled them as helpless so they became more ‘disabled’ because of the way they are perceived. They became less assertive, more passive and reserved due to this label and developed a ‘blind personality’. Labelling power. If they had been pushed to be independent this would’ve been reversed. ❖​ Labelling Theory ​ Becker (1963) saw that our ‘sense of self’ is affected by labelling. We categorise and attach identities as a result. This allows us to meet others with the same labels which creates subcultures. ​ Self-fulfilling prophecy to an extent. If very negative/positive it can became a master status and only trait e.g murderers. ​ Offers an insight into smaller groups of people in depth but can be too microsociological ​ May fail to consider other influences on an individuals behaviour (they may not be aware of it) Feminism Key facts ❖​ Conflict theory, structural theory, political movement ❖​ Male favour - patriarchy. Women are seen as subordinates/second-class to males due to gender roles and biological needs. ❖​ Traditional sociology (pre-20th century) is very male-orientated and ignores domestic violence/gender inequalities ❖​ Agrees with Marxist Ideological State Apparatus - male dominance is taught in state institutions Liberal Feminism ❖​ Focuses on equal opportunities in education, the workplace and politics ❖​ Works within the existing power structure to change laws more passively - e.g the Equal Pay act of 1970 ❖​ Gender inequalities are a result of unfair laws and socialisation (the 6 agents of what we’re taught in society) - needs to change norms/values to be equal. ❖​ Oakley (1979) argued that family socialisation is a big factor. Manipulation and canalisation (toys and gendered play) teach kids expectations of norms of their sex  ❖​ Praised for continued importance but could argue this is diminishing ❖​ Children as passive receptors of their gender roles - negotiation does occur e.g “I don’t want to play with the princess” ❖​ Doesn’t explain how females and males came to originally hold different levels of power - also mostly white middleclass women and not wider groups Marxist Feminism ❖​ Capitalism is an economic system that leads to the oppression of women - due to the stereotypical roles of ‘homemakers’ and ‘breadwinners’ ❖​ Feely (1972) says family teaches kids to submit to a form of patriarchal parental authority. ❖​ Benston (1972) says that the wife is an unpaid labourer and dependent on the husband to provide for her financially. Ansley (1978) says that women soothe the stresses of working husbands after a day of labour ❖​ Too much emphasis on social class and no other factors - some theorists don’t believe in social class ❖​ Patriarchy predates capitalism - how can we have sexism because of capitalism but it came beforehand? ❖​ Also criticisms of traditional marxism Radical Feminism ❖​ Argues that the structure of society is based on oppressing women and needs revolutionary changes to get equality ❖​ Millett (1970) argues that patriarchy is the first and most influential form of inequality regardless of class ❖​ Family is central to the oppression due to biological factors (the start of it) ❖​ Johnson (1995) says that patriarchal terrorism is violence as a result of patriarchal traditions that dictate a man’s right to ‘control his woman’ ❖​ Doesn’t talk about variations in family life or recognise that women can enjoy being a mother/housewife ❖​ Assumes women should only connect with women like gendered spheres and disregards changes in women’s position over time Difference Feminism ❖​ Also known as Black Feminism ❖​ Intersectionality = people can have many aspects to their discrimination. ❖​ Sylvia Walby (1980s) developed the triple system concept - gender, race, class. Embraces intersectionality’s ideas ❖​ Concept of patriarchy is important but it has changed over time towards a public patriarchy which includes more women as it isn’t just domestic now ❖​ Six patriarchal structures that restrict women:​ ​ Paid employment, the household, government/state, cultural institutions e.g media, sexuality sex-wise, violence against women ❖​ Improvement on other feminist theories as it includes multiple perspectives. Walby developed and changed her ideas as social changes happened ❖​ Emphasises too much on influence of social structure on behaviour - women are active in their choices New Right ❖​ Political rather than a sociological theory ❖​ Margaret Thatcher and John Major between 1979-1997. ❖​ Combines neo-liberalistic economics with neoconservatism politics ❖​ Neoliberal economics ​ An argument that capitalist society works best in a free market e.g so the state doesn’t interfere with the economy. Doesn’t apply to Britain - e.g welfare. Based upon liberal economic theorists. ​ Say that economics need to be determined by supply and demand. Less intervention and more public services being run by private companies. Privatisation. ​ Also involves public money e.g taxes being given to private companies to run hospitals, schools, transport, utilities ❖​ Neoconservatism politics ​ A belief in traditional values e.g the nuclear family, education, culture ​ Based upon functionalistic ideas that the 50’s was a golden age in society with little social unrest/crime but we have moved away from this. ​ New Right blames social problems e.g poverty on individuals rather than on the structure of society. ​ Criminals are people who weren’t correctly integrated into society. ​ Alot of them come from single mothers and more males commit crime as they don’t have a father figure in their life. ​ Want to bring us back to that ‘golden age’. ❖​ Sociology and politics are heavily linked with policies informed by governments that affect society. ❖​ New right promoted individuals to look after themselves with less government intervention and more economic growth/traditional values. Says it would solve social issues such as poverty. ❖​ Reduced spending on social welfare. Argues that the route out of poverty is not welfare dependence but hard work - targeted areas with high crime rates with a zero-tolerance policy. ❖​ Murray (1984) ❖​ Underclass ​ Argued that intervention like welfare benefits had made a dependency culture. ​ Groups often unemployed or single parents were rewarded for irresponsible behaviour. ​ Led to the underclass - not disciplined, selfish, doesn’t care about their children, dependent. Lacked social norms/values ❖​ Provides a counter-balance to left-wing or anti-capitalist stances of most sociology. Many aren’t based on sociological evidence. Murray’s view that the poor are irresponsible are contradicted by many studies and that it isn’t due to competence but due to circumstance.