Sociology lecture.docx

**Sociology (lectures)** ======================== **Introduction to Environment** =============================== **What is environment?** Environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements and their effects that influence human life. While all living or biotic el...

**Sociology (lectures)** ======================== **Introduction to Environment** =============================== **What is environment?** Environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements and their effects that influence human life. While all living or biotic elements are animals, plants, forests, fisheries, and birds, non-living or abiotic elements include water, land, sunlight, rocks, and air. **Components of Environment** ----------------------------- Environment has been classified into four major components: 1. Hydrosphere, 2. Lithosphere, 3. Atmosphere, 4. Biosphere These four systems are in constant change and such changes are affected by human activities and vice versa. **Hydrosphere** --------------- Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc. Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle. **Lithosphere** --------------- Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth's crust. The earth is a cold spherical solid planet of the solar system. Lithosphere mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided into three layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner). **Atmosphere** -------------- The cover of the air, that envelope the earth is known as the atmosphere. Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. **Layers of atmosphere** There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. These include a. the troposphere, b. the stratosphere, c. the mesosphere, d. the thermosphere and e. the exosphere a. **Troposphere:** This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the Earth\'s surface to about 15 kilometers above sea level, depending on the location. It contains most of the Earth\'s weather, including clouds, precipitation, and atmospheric turbulence. The temperature generally decreases with altitude in the troposphere. b. **Stratosphere:** Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, extending from about 15 kilometers to around 50 kilometers above sea level. One of its defining features is the presence of the ozone layer, which absorbs much of the sun\'s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. c. **Mesosphere:** The mesosphere extends from the top of the stratosphere (50km) to about 85 kilometers above sea level. Temperatures in this layer decrease with altitude, reaching extremely cold temperatures. The mesosphere is where most meteoroids burn up upon entering the Earth\'s atmosphere, creating \"shooting stars.\" d. **Thermosphere:** Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere, extending from about 80 kilometers (50 miles) to several hundred kilometers above the Earth\'s surface. Despite its name, the temperature in the thermosphere can be extremely high due to the absorption of solar radiation. e. **Exosphere:** The exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth\'s atmosphere. It gradually transitions into space and is composed of extremely sparse gas molecules, primarily hydrogen and helium. Satellites and other spacecraft orbit within the exosphere, as it is where the atmosphere becomes indistinguishable from outer space. **Biosphere** ------------- It is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth's surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. **Question: How are environmental studies and sociology inter-related?** Answer: The study of environment and sociology combined is also called environmental sociology. This subfield of environmental sociology focuses on the aspects of human life and behaviours that directly impact the natural world. (For example trees were cut without considering the impacts of deforestation on the environment). The main goal of environmental sociology is to promote the behaviours and practices which leads to sustainable environment and satisfied human conscience about their surrounding world. **Tragedy of the commons** -------------------------- The tragedy of the commons refers to a situation in which individuals with access to a public resource (also called a common) act in their own interest and, in doing so, ultimately deplete the resource. Example over fishing, traffic congestion, deforestation, groundwater use. Sinking city example (Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia) **Resource Management**: In natural resource management, the tragedy of the commons happens when people exploit common resources such as fisheries, forests, or other resources without considering the long-term consequences. Each user may seek to maximize their own benefit (e.g., catching more fish, cutting more trees), leading to depletion of the resource, which can ultimately harm everyone involved. **Environmental Degradation:** Human activities that contribute to environmental degradation, such as pollution of air and water, deforestation, and overfishing, can be linked to the tragedy of the commons. **Public Goods and Services:** The tragedy of the commons can also apply to public goods and services that are collectively funded and maintained by society, such as public parks, transportation systems, or healthcare. If individuals exploit these resources without contributing their fair share (e.g., free-riding on public services without paying taxes), it can strain the system and lead to inefficiencies or degradation of the services over time. **Social Dilemmas:** The concept of the tragedy of the commons is part of a broader category of social dilemmas, where individual rationality conflicts with collective well-being. People often face decisions where their self-interest may conflict with the interests of the group or the common good. Without mechanisms for cooperation, coordination, and enforcement of rules, individuals may act in ways that collectively harm the group or society as a whole. **Policy and Governance:** Addressing the tragedy of the commons requires thoughtful policy interventions, institutional arrangements, and collective action. This can include strategies such as establishing regulations, creating property rights or quotas for resource use, promoting sustainable practices, fostering cooperation among stakeholders, and raising awareness about the importance of conservation and responsible behaviour. **Terminology** =============== **Natural resources** Natural resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet people\'s needs. Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone and sand are natural resources. Other natural resources are air, sunlight, soil and water. **Types of Natural Resources:** There are two types of natural resources 1. Renewable resources 2. Non-renewable resources **Renewable Resources:** Renewable resources are those resources that continue to exist despite being consumed or can replenish themselves over a period of time even as they are used. Examples include sunlight, wind energy, water and air. **Non-renewable Resources:** Non-renewable resources are finite and are depleted over time as they are used. Examples include fossil fuel (oil, natural gas, coal) and nuclear energy. **Sustainability:** Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. It can also be defined as the usage of natural resources in controlled manner so that the needs of future generations can also be fulfilled. **Social Constructs of Sustainability:** Sustainability is not just an environmental concept; it encompasses social, economic, and environmental dimensions, known as the \"three pillars\" of sustainability. Sociologists study how societies define, perceive, and prioritize sustainability based on cultural, political, and historical contexts. They analyse how social norms, values, beliefs, and institutions shape attitudes and behaviours related to sustainability. **Scope of environmental studies in social development** NGO (Nongovernmental organizations) help in creating awareness regarding the protection of the environment and making the masses aware of various environmental issues. They also generate a public opinion in this field. They work towards disseminating information and in bringing about changes in political policies that are personally effect the environment. The social dimension of this profession includes controlling population explosion through organizing advisory awareness camps. **Environmental problems** Main problems Air pollution Waste management Water pollution 1. **Solid waste** Waste is introduced into the environment due to the day-to-day activities of humans. Waste can be categorized based on various criteria, each serving different purposes for management, treatment, and disposal. Here are the primary bases for categorizing waste: 1. **On the basis of degradability** It is determined by how long a waste remains in the environment **Biodegradable Solid Waste** Biodegradable waste consists of organic materials that can be broken down by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and other decomposers into simpler, non-toxic substances. This process is known as biodegradation. **Examples:** - Food scraps (vegetable peels, fruit remnants, meat bones) - Yard waste (leaves, grass clippings, branches) - Paper and cardboard - Biodegradable plastics (certain types of bioplastics) **Non-Biodegradable Solid Waste** Non-biodegradable waste consists of materials that cannot be easily broken down by natural processes. These materials persist in the environment for long periods, sometimes indefinitely. **Examples:** - Plastics (e.g., polyethylene, polystyrene) - Metals (e.g., aluminium cans, iron scrap) - Glass (e.g., bottles, jars) - Non-biodegradable synthetic fibres (e.g., nylon, polyester) - Electronic waste (e-waste) like old computers, mobile phones, and batteries 2. **On the basis of their impacts on environment** **Hazardous waste** Waste that poses threats to public health or the environment due to its toxic, reactive, corrosive, or flammable properties. Examples include chemicals, batteries, and medical waste. **Non-hazardous waste** Waste that does not pose immediate risks to health or the environment. Most household and office waste falls into this category. 3. **On the basis of source of generation** **source** **Typical waste generators** **Types of solid waste** ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Residential Wastes from houses, buildings Kitchen waste, plastics, paper, garden waste, glass, e-waste. Industrial Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, refineries, mineral extraction, construction sites, power and chemical plants. Housekeeping waste, packaging food waste, construction and demolition materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special waste. Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood food waste, metals, hazardous waste. Institutional Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers. Same as commercial Construction and demolition New construction sites, road repair, renovation sites, demolition of buildings Wood, steel, concrete, dirt etc. Municipal services Street cleaning landscaping, parks, beaches, and other recreational areas. Water and wastewater treatment plants. Street sweepings, landscape and tree trimmings, general waste from parks, beaches and other recreational areas, sludge. Agriculture Crops, orchards, vineyard, dairies, feedlots, farms Spoiled food waste, agricultural waste, hazardous waste (pesticides). 4. **On the basis of waste disposal methods.** Recyclable waste Landfill waste **Recyclable waste** Waste materials that can be processed and used again, such as paper, glass, metals, and certain plastics. **Landfill waste** Waste that is typically disposed of in landfills. This can include both biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials that are not recycled or composted. **Waste management** Waste management refers to the many methods and processes of dealing with waste at every stage from generation and collection through to final disposal. Waste needs to be managed in order to prevent contact with humans or their immediate environment. Therefore, the main purpose of waste management is to isolate waste from humans and the environment, and consequently, safeguard individual, family and community health. In addition, the aesthetic value of a better outlook and a clean physical environment is important for our emotional wellbeing. The aim of sustainable waste management is to reduce waste formation and to use resources more efficiently and rationally, ensuring that the waste of one sector is used as a raw material in another sector. The per capita waste generation in Karachi, the largest city in Pakistan, is estimated to be around 0.83 kilograms per day. **How many official landfill sites are there in Karachi?** Karachi currently has two official landfill sites: Jam Chakro and Gond Pass. These sites handle a significant portion of the city's waste, with Jam Chakro receiving about 6,000-7,000 tons of waste daily and Gond Pass handling around 1,000-2,000 tons. However, the capacity of these sites is nearing saturation due to the large volume of waste generated in the city, estimated at 12,000 to 15,000 tons per day.  Jam-chakro landfill site 2. **Water pollution** Water pollution is a significant environmental issue that occurs when harmful substances---such as chemicals, waste products, or microorganisms---contaminate water bodies, degrading water quality and making it harmful to humans, animals, and the environment. When discussing the issues that can arise due to water pollution, there are three major areas to consider: - **Health: **According to the United Nations, every year there are more [deaths caused by polluted water](https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/quality.shtml) than all types of violence combined, including war. Waste from humans and animals that contaminates water carries bacteria and viruses that cause the spread of diseases such as typhoid, cholera and giardia.  - **Environment:** All the species in an ecosystem rely on each other in order to survive. Outside substances, such as pollutants found in wastewater, can disrupt the complicated relationships between species that an ecosystem needs in order to thrive. - **Economy:** Polluted water can have many negative effects on the economy. It directly impacts sectors such as commercial fishing, recreational businesses, tourism and even property values, all of which rely heavily on clean water. Polluted drinking water can also cause treatment costs to rise, which in turn makes the cost of drinking water rise as well.  **Cause/Sources of water pollution** **Agricultural Runoff** Not only is the agricultural sector the biggest consumer of global freshwater resources, with farming and livestock production using about [70 percent of the earth's surface water supplies](http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e04.htm), but it's also a serious water polluter. Around the world, agriculture is the leading cause of water degradation. It's also a major contributor of contamination to estuaries and groundwater. Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and pathogens---such bacteria and viruses---into our waterways. [Nutrient pollution](https://www.nrdc.org/stories/industrial-agriculture-101), caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can [cause algal blooms](https://www.nrdc.org/stories/freshwater-harmful-algal-blooms-101), a toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to people and wildlife. **Industrial Discharge** Industries and industrial sites across the world are a major contributor to water pollution. Many industrial sites produce waste in the form of toxic chemicals and pollutants, and though regulated, some still do not have proper waste management systems in place. In those rare cases, industrial waste is dumped into nearby freshwater systems. When industrial waste is not treated properly (or worse, not treated at all), it can very easily pollute the freshwater systems that it comes into contact with.  Industrial waste can make its way into rivers, streams and other bodies of water that lead directly to the sea.  **Sewage and Wastewater**: Untreated or inadequately treated sewage from households and commercial establishments contributes disease causing micro-organisms, nutrients, and organic matter to water bodies. **Marine Dumping** The process of marine dumping is exactly what it sounds like, dumping garbage into the waters of the ocean. Household garbage is still collected and dumped into oceans by many countries across the world. Most of these items can take anywhere from two to 200 years to decompose completely. **The Great Pacific Garbage Patch** The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is the largest accumulation of ocean plastic in the world and is located between Hawaii and California. **Oil spills** Accidental spills from oil tankers and offshore rigs release large quantities of oil into oceans and seas, causing extensive damage to marine ecosystems.  **Tasman Spirit oil spill** The ***Tasman Spirit* oil spill** occurred in the [Arabian Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea) just outside the [Port of Karachi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Karachi), [Karachi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi), [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan) on July 27, 2003, when [*Tasman Spirit*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Tasman_Spirit), an [oil tanker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_tanker), bound for the [Port of Karachi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Karachi) from [Kharg Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharg_Island), [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran), ran aground while navigating to the Port of Karachi, at the [Clifton Beach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton_Beach,_Karachi) and [spilled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill) approximately 30,000 [metric tonnes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne) of light [crude oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil) over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the worst human-caused [environmental disasters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_disaster) in Pakistan. The *Tasman Spirit* spill is The oil, originally extracted from oil fields in Iran, eventually affected 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) of the main public beach of the city, and the Port of Karachi, which were heavily or moderately oiled. ### **Deepwater Horizon (Gulf of Mexico, 2010)** The ***Deepwater Horizon* oil spill** was an environmental disaster which began on 20 April 2010, off the coast of the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States) in the [Gulf of Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico) considered the largest marine [oil spill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill) in the history of the petroleum industry. After [several failed efforts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efforts_to_stem_the_Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill) to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on 19 September 2010. Reports in early 2012 indicated that the well site was still leaking. The *Deepwater Horizon* oil spill is regarded as one of the largest [environmental disasters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_disaster) in world history.  ### **Exxon Valdez (Alaska, 1989)** The ***Exxon Valdez* oil spill** was a major [environmental disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_disaster) that made worldwide [headlines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headline) in 1989 and occurred in [Alaska](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska)\'s [Prince William Sound](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_William_Sound) on March 24, 1989. The spill occurred when [*Exxon Valdez*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Valdez), an oil [supertanker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertanker) owned by [Exxon Shipping Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Shipping_Company), bound for [Long Beach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_California), California, struck [Prince William Sound](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_William_Sound)\'s [Bligh Reef](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bligh_Reef). The tanker [spilled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill) approximately 10.8 million US gallons of [crude oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum) over the next few days. \] **Urban Runoff** Urban runoff can happen after heavy rainfall which results into flooding in cities and towns. The flood water can damage the infrastructure and carry solid wastes as it goes. **Pakistan floods** From 15 June to October 2022, [floods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood) in [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan) killed 1,739 people, and caused ₨ 3.2 trillion of damage. The immediate causes of the floods were heavier than usual [monsoon rains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia) and melting glaciers that followed a [severe heat wave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan), both of which are linked to [climate change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Pakistan). On 25 August 2022, Pakistan declared a [state of emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_emergency) because of the flooding. The flooding was the world\'s [deadliest flood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deadliest_floods) since the [2020 South Asian floods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_South_Asian_floods) and described as the worst in the country\'s history. It was also recorded as one of the [costliest natural disasters in world history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_disasters_by_cost). **Radioactive substances** The application of radioactive elements in nuclear weapons, X-rays, MRI and other medical equipment causes their exposure to human beings. Dumping of these radioactive wastes in surface waterbodies causes water pollution.  Radioactive contamination is more prevalent in groundwater as compared to surface water. [**Fukushima nuclear disaster**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster) The Fukushima nuclear disaster was a significant nuclear accident that occurred on March 11, 2011, at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. This disaster was triggered by a massive earthquake and the ensuing tsunami. It is regarded as the worst nuclear incident since the [Chernobyl disaster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster) in 1986. **Water pollution in Pakistan** =============================== Water pollution in Pakistan is a severe and growing issue with significant implications for public health and the environment. Recent data indicates that about 60% of Pakistan's population lacks access to safe drinking water, contributing to widespread health problems. Approximately 30% of all diseases and 40% of all deaths in the country are linked to poor water quality. This situation is particularly dire for children, with around 55,000 children under the age of five dying annually from waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, and typhoid. **Quick notes about water pollution** 1. Fresh water on earth is only 2.5% of the total water when 70% of the earth\'s surface is covered by water. 2. Around 70% of industrial waste is dumped to water. 3. 80% of the water pollution is caused due to domestic sewage. 4. More than 6 billion pounds of garbage, mainly plastic end up in the oceans every year. 5. The contaminated water is the main cause of various diseases such as cholera and typhus. 6. 15 million children under the age of five years die every year from diseases caused by drinking contaminated water. 7. On average 250 million people succumb each year from diseases caused by the contaminated water while according to the World Health Organization and UNICEF almost 2.5 billion people lack access to valuable health conditions. 8. Asia has the highest number of contaminated rivers than any other continent, mainly of bacteria from human waste. 9. Almost two million tons of human waste are exposed daily to water. 10. The Ganges River in India is considered the most polluted river in the world and contains dirt, garbage, dead animals and humans. #### **Point source pollution** When contamination originates from a single source, it's called point source pollution. Examples include wastewater (also called effluent) discharged legally or illegally by a manufacturer, oil refinery, or wastewater treatment facility, as well as contamination from leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills, and illegal dumping #### **Non-point source** Nonpoint source pollution is contamination derived from diffuse sources. These may include agricultural or storm water runoff or debris blown into waterways from land. #### **Transboundary** It goes without saying that water pollution can't be contained by a line on a map. Transboundary pollution is the result of contaminated water from one country spilling into the waters of another. Contamination can result from a disaster---like an oil spill---or the slow, downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal discharge. **How is groundwater polluted?** Groundwater gets polluted when contaminants---from pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from landfills and septic systems---make their way into an aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. 3. **Air pollution** **Composition of air** Air contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. **Definition of air pollution** Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment. These substances include gases (SOx, NOx, CO, HCs, etc.) particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols) radioactive materials and many others. CO2 levels in outdoor air typically range from 0.03% to 0.04% but can be as high as 0.06% - 0.09% in metropolitan areas. **History** During the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution led to the emission of significant amounts of air pollutants via the combustion of a variety of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas). In particular, the air pollution in London during the 19th and 20th centuries became particularly problematic. **The Great Smog of London** The Great Smog of London, also known as the Big Smoke, occurred in December 1952 and is one of the most severe air pollution events in history. Over the course of five days, from December 5 to December 9, a dense layer of smog enveloped the city, caused by a combination of cold weather, windless conditions, and airborne pollutants primarily from the widespread use of coal for heating and industry. **Health impact** The smog was extremely thick, reducing visibility to a few meters. It caused severe respiratory problems and is estimated to have resulted in the deaths of around 4,000 to 12,000 people due to respiratory and cardiovascular complications​ **Question: why air pollution is more prominent in winter season?** Air pollution is more prominent in winter season due to the phenomenon of temperature inversion. **Temperature inversion** In meteorology, an inversion is a layer of warmer air held above colder air. Normally, air temperature gradually decreases as altitude increases, but in an inversion this relationship is reversed. **Air pollution in Lahore, Pakistan** Lahore also faces unprecedented air pollution in winter season due to the process of temperature inversion. The combination of heavy industrial and vehicular emissions, adverse meteorological conditions, agricultural practices, rapid urbanization, and insufficient regulatory measures makes Lahore particularly vulnerable to severe air pollution. **Sources of air pollution**  Impacts of air pollution **Factors affecting the air of a region** Certain climatic factors influence the quality of air of a region. Meteorological variables i.e. humidity, temperature, precipitation, wind pattern and vertical mixing are negatively influenced by the air pollutants which are introduced into the air via various routes including transportation, industrial emissions of harmful gases, dispersion of gases etc. Difference between climate and weather Environmental impacts of air pollution Health impacts Diseases Pulmonary (respiratory track) diseases **Criteria Air pollutants** =========================== Criteria air pollutants are a group of common air pollutants regulated by environmental authorities such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) due to their harmful effects on human health and the environment. These 6 pollutants include particulate matter (PM~2.5~) (PM~10~), ground-level ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and lead (Pb). The sources of these pollutants are varied and can be classified as either anthropogenic (human-made) or natural. ### **Particulate Matter (PM)** Particulate matter 2.5 and particulate matter 10 micrometer 1. **Anthropogenic Sources**: - **Combustion Processes**: Vehicles, industrial processes, power plants. - **Construction Activities**: Dust from construction sites. - **Agricultural Activities**: Plowing, burning of crop residues. - **Residential Heating**: Wood stoves, fireplaces. 2. **Natural Sources**: - **Wildfires**: Smoke and ash. - **Volcanic Eruptions**: Ash and particulates. - **Dust Storms**: Wind-blown dust from arid regions. ### **Ground-Level Ozone (O₃)** 1. **Anthropogenic Sources**: - **Vehicle Emissions**: Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from cars and trucks. - **Industrial Emissions**: Emissions from factories and power plants. - **Chemical Solvents**: VOCs from paints, cleaning products. 2. **Natural Sources**: - **Biogenic VOCs**: Emissions from vegetation and soil. ### **Carbon Monoxide (CO)** 1. **Anthropogenic Sources**: - **Vehicle Emissions**: Cars and trucks. - **Industrial Processes**: Factories and power plants. - **Residential Heating**: Wood stoves, fireplaces, and gas appliances. 2. **Natural Sources**: - **Wildfires**: Combustion of biomass. - **Volcanic Activity**: Emission of gases. ### **Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)** 1. **Anthropogenic Sources**: - **Fossil Fuel Combustion**: Coal and oil-fired power plants, industrial processes. - **Oil Refining**: Processing of crude oil. - **Metal Smelting**: Extraction of metals from ores. 2. **Natural Sources**: - **Volcanic Eruptions**: Emission of sulfur gases. - **Geothermal Activity**: Release of sulfur gases from the Earth\'s crust. ### **Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)** 1. **Anthropogenic Sources**: - **Vehicle Emissions**: Cars and trucks. - **Power Plants**: Combustion of fossil fuels. - **Industrial Processes**: Factories and production facilities. 2. **Natural Sources**: - **Lightning**: Natural production of NOₓ. - **Microbial Activity**: Release of nitrogen compounds from soil **Deforestation** Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. Forest resources and associated problems 1\. Use and over-exploitation. 2\. Deforestation. 3\. Timber extraction. 4\. Mining and its effects on forest. 5\. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. Forests cover 31 percent of the global land area. More than half of the world's forests are found in only five countries (the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China) and two-thirds (66 percent) of forests are found in ten countries. [\ ](https://www.fao.org/3/ca8642en/ca8642en.pdf#page=34)Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades. **OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS** Forest has been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place to meet human demands in the following ways: - 1. Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc -- 2. Deforestation due to road construction -- 3. Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs of growing population -- 4. About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing -- 5. Mining activities leads to clearing of forests -- 6. Big hydro-electric projects result in large scale destruction of forest Deforestation in Pakistan due to illegal logging The key factor of deforestation is illegal logging. The amount of wood consumed, and the total amount of wood harvested from State forests in Pakistan is used as basic information to estimate the level of illegal wood harvested. It was documented that the illegally harvested wood was four times more than the legal wood harvested. Illegal logging is considered an important part of the underground market. Forests in the areas of Kashmir and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are vulnerable to illegal harvesting of timber by militant groups. Illegal timber is being smuggled between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Timber that is smuggled from Pakistan is then sent back to Pakistan as mentioning it is duty-free Afghan timber. After the wood being smuggled in Pakistan, it is transported to Karachi and further to the Gulf States. **Causes of deforestation** - **Agricultural Expansion**: - **Commercial Agriculture**: Large-scale farming of crops like soy, palm oil, and rubber. - **Subsistence Agriculture**: Small-scale farming for local consumption often leads to slash-and-burn practices. - **Logging**: - **Commercial Logging**: Harvesting timber for furniture, paper, and construction. - **Illegal Logging**: Unauthorized cutting of trees, often for high-value wood. - **Infrastructure Development**: - **Roads and Highways**: Opening remote forest areas for development and access. - **Urban Expansion**: Growth of cities and towns into forested areas. - **Hydroelectric Projects**: Creation of dams and reservoirs. - **Mining**: - **Surface Mining**: Extraction of minerals and fossil fuels requires clearing large forest areas. - **Fuelwood and Charcoal Production**: - Particularly in developing regions, forests are cleared for fuel. **Ecological services** Ecological services, also known as ecosystem services, are the benefits that humans derive from natural ecosystems. These services are the result of complex interactions among the living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and their physical environment (air, water, soil). They are essential for the survival and quality of life of humans and other organisms. Ecological services can be broadly categorized into four main types: - **Provisioning Services**: These are the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, fresh water, timber, fiber, medicinal plants, and genetic resources. - **Regulating Services**: These are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes. Examples include climate regulation, flood control, disease regulation, water purification, and pollination. - **Supporting Services**: These services are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. They include soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production, and the maintenance of biodiversity. - **Cultural Services**: These are the non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences. Examples include cultural heritage, recreational activities, and educational experiences. **Ecological services of forests** Forests provide a wide array of ecological services that are crucial for the health of the planet and human well-being. Here are some of the key ecological services provided by forests: 1. **Carbon Sequestration**: - Forests act as significant carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. This helps mitigate climate change by reducing the overall concentration of greenhouse gases. 2. **Oxygen Production**: - Through photosynthesis, forests produce oxygen, which is essential for the survival of most living organisms, including humans. 3. **Biodiversity Conservation**: - Forests are home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are not found anywhere else. They provide habitat, food, and protection for a diverse range of organisms, thus maintaining biodiversity. 4. **Water Regulation**: - Forests play a vital role in the hydrological cycle. They regulate water flow by absorbing rainfall, reducing runoff, and enhancing groundwater recharge. This helps prevent flooding and maintains water quality by filtering pollutants. 5. **Soil Conservation**: - The root systems of trees and other vegetation help to bind the soil, preventing erosion. This is crucial for maintaining soil fertility and preventing land degradation. 6. **Climate Regulation**: - Forests influence local and global climates. They moderate temperatures, influence rainfall patterns, and contribute to the stability of the global climate system. 7. **Nutrient Cycling**: - Forest ecosystems contribute to the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Decomposing plant material returns nutrients to the soil, supporting plant growth and maintaining soil health. 8. **Pollination**: - Many forest plants rely on animals, such as bees, birds, and bats, for pollination. Forests thus support these pollinators, which are essential for the reproduction of many crops and wild plants. 9. **Cultural and Recreational Services**: - Forests provide recreational opportunities such as hiking, bird-watching, and camping. They also have cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic value for many communities, contributing to human well-being and quality of life. 10. **Provisioning Services**: - Forests provide resources such as timber, fuelwood, non-timber forest products (e.g., fruits, nuts, medicinal plants), and fresh water. 11. **Pest and Disease Control**: - Forests harbor a variety of predators and parasites that help control pest populations, contributing to the health of agricultural and natural ecosystems. 12. **Air Quality Improvement**: - Trees and vegetation in forests absorb pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, improving air quality. By providing these services, forests support life on Earth and contribute to human well-being, economic development, and the overall stability of the natural environment. **Water cycle**  The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle), is a [biogeochemical cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle) that involves the continuous movement of [water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water) on, above and below the surface of the [Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth).  The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to [ocean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean), or from the ocean to the atmosphere. The processes that drive these movements are [evaporation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation), [transpiration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration), [condensation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation), [precipitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)), [sublimation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)), [infiltration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)), [surface runoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoff), and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid ([ice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice)) and [vapor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapor). The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global evaporation. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing. 1. [**Evaporation**](https://www.britannica.com/science/evaporation), one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the [liquid](https://www.britannica.com/science/liquid-state-of-matter) state is transferred to the [gaseous](https://www.britannica.com/science/gas-state-of-matter), or vapour, state. 2. [**Transpiration**](https://www.britannica.com/science/transpiration) is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of [plants](https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant). For practical purposes, transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called [**evapotranspiration**](https://www.britannica.com/science/evapotranspiration), or total evaporation. 3. The transition process from the vapour state to the [liquid](https://www.britannica.com/science/liquid-state-of-matter) state is called [**condensation**](https://www.britannica.com/science/condensation-phase-change). By condensation, water vapour in the atmosphere is released to form [precipitation](https://www.britannica.com/science/precipitation). 4. Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. Precipitation is the main way atmospheric water returns to the surface of the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain. **The difference between rain and precipitation** The difference between Rain and Precipitation is rain falls as water droplets, whereas precipitation can fall as snow, water, etc. Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that begins in the atmosphere and falls to the Earth\'s surface. Rain, on the other hand, is precipitation that falls in the form of water. **Climate change** Climate change is the long-term increase in the earth\'s average surface temperature and the large-scale changes in global, regional, and local weather patterns that result from that increase, caused by a significant increase in the levels of greenhouse gases that are produced by the use of fossil fuels. **2 school of thoughts on climate change** Some believes that it is totally natural some believes that it is induced by anthropogenic activities. Here are some key [**climate change statistics**](https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/) gathered by NASA: - Over the last two centuries, the global average temperature of the earth's surface has risen by (1.18 degrees Celsius). - Between 1993 and 2019, there was an annual loss of 279 billion tons of ice in Greenland and 148 billion tons of ice in Antarctica, as ice sheets break off and eventually melt. - There has been a 0.6 degree Fahrenheit (0.33 degree Celsius) rise in the temperature of the top 100 meters of the ocean since 1969. **Weather:** The local meteorological conditions experienced over short periods of time, including temperature, precipitation, and wind speed, humidity, and visibility. **Climate:** The long-term average of patterns and trends in weather, including day-to-day, year-to-year, and even longer time periods. ### **Global Warming and Climate Change** The two most popular terms used to describe the earth\'s increasing temperatures are global warming and climate change. These relate to both short-term and long-term trends for both weather and climate. While they\'re often used interchangeably, there\'s a slight difference between them: - **Global Warming**: The rising average temperature of the earth\'s lower layers, including the ocean and atmosphere. Such warming occurs from the heat being trapped in the earth\'s atmosphere due to greenhouse gases. - **Climate Change**: The varying environmental conditions that influence the planet\'s weather patterns. ### **Natural Causes of Climate Change** When it comes to natural factors impacting climate change, these three causes are frequently cited as contributors: - **Changes in Solar Radiation -** The sun\'s rays heat the earth regardless of changes in weather patterns that occur below. As such, any change in the sun\'s radiation - either an increase or decrease - will influence our surface temperatures. - **Greenhouse Gases -** As the temperature increases, more greenhouse gases are released into the air. This traps more heat in the earth\'s atmosphere while thinning out the ozone layer, which means less radiation can escape. It can cause a nasty cycle where the participants feed off each other. - **Drastic Weather Changes -** Climate change can also occur through drastic weather changes. Disasters like hurricanes or floods can cause significant damage to the surrounding environment, which in turn can affect the climate. ### **Man-Made Causes of Climate Change** The most prominent man-made causes of climate change include: - **Industrialization -** Increased development has led to greater production and allocation of energy, which releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere in greater percentages than in the past. - **Inconsistent Emissions Controls -** As technology continues to improve, emissions control standards haven't kept pace. This means that more harmful greenhouse gases are being released into the air. - **Deforestation** **-** Plants breathe in carbon dioxide, which makes them an essential part of life on this planet. When increasing amounts of trees are cut down without planting new ones, it means a disproportionate amount of carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere and heats up the environment. - **Agribusiness - **Contemporary farms send up large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere while meeting the food needs of developed countries. - **Modernization - **The concrete used to build roads, and the vehicles that travel upon them, create high levels of carbon dioxide and exhaust fumes that contribute to higher temperatures. **Greenhouse gases** Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. ### **Carbon dioxide (CO~2~)** CO~2 ~is released through natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions, plant respiration and animals and humans breathing. However atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased (from 0.03 to 0.04%) since the Industrial Revolution began in the 1800s, due to human activities like the burning of fossil fuels and large-scale deforestation. Due to its abundance, CO~2~ is the main contributor to climate change. ### **Methane (CH~4~)** Methane is produced naturally through decomposition. But again, human activity has displaced the natural balance. Large amounts of methane are released by cattle farming, landfill waste dumps, rice farming and the traditional production of oil and gas. ### **Nitrous oxide** Nitrous oxide is produced through the large-scale use of commercial and organic fertilisers, fossil-fuel combustion, nitric-acid production and biomass burning. ### **Water vapour** Water vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas. It increases as the earth\'s atmosphere warms but unlike CO~2~, which can remain in the earth's atmosphere for centuries, water vapour persists for only a few days. **Greenhouse effect** The greenhouse effect is a natural process responsible for keeping the earth at the temperature needed to sustain life. Acting just like the glass walls of a greenhouse, gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide trap the sun's heat in the atmosphere and prevent it from escaping into space. About half of the sun's radiation that travels toward the earth never makes it to the earth's surface. [Clouds](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/376) and the atmosphere reflect about one-third of the radiation back toward the sun, and they also absorb another 20 percent. The rest of the radiation---about 50 percent---reaches the earth, where it is absorbed by oceans and land. This keeps the earth warm and sustains plant, animal, and human life. The earth also releases heat back toward space. Some of this heat passes through the atmosphere, but most of it is captured and retained by [greenhouse gases](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/335) before it can escape. This is the mechanism that keeps the earth warm. Normally, the [greenhouse effect](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/334) keeps the earth just warm enough to sustain life. Scientists say that without the greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the earth would drop to as low as −18˚C, compared to the twentieth-century average of 14˚C.  The [greenhouse effect](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/334) has supported life on the earth for millions of years. Today, however, the greenhouse effect is growing stronger as human activities such as [deforestation](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/330) and [fossil fuel](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/798) use release more and more [greenhouse gases](https://education.cfr.org/cfr_glossary/335) into the atmosphere. This traps greater amounts of the sun's radiation, which contributes to rising temperatures, also known as global warming. **Climate change vulnerability of Pakistan:** Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change due to a combination of geographical, social, and economic factors. The impacts of climate change on Pakistan are multifaceted and severe, affecting various sectors and communities across the country. According to data from the World Resources Institute\'s Climate Data Explorer (CAIT) and other sources, Pakistan\'s total GHG emissions are around 490 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent (MtCO2e) as of recent estimates. This accounts for approximately 0.8-1% of the global total. ### **Key Vulnerabilities:** 1. **Water Resources:** - **Glacial Melt:** Pakistan\'s water resources are heavily dependent on the Himalayan glaciers, which are melting at an alarming rate due to rising temperatures. This impacts river flows and water availability for agriculture, drinking, and hydropower. - **River Indus:** Changes in precipitation patterns and the increased frequency of extreme weather events are affecting the flow of the Indus River, Pakistan\'s primary water source. 2. **Agriculture:** - **Crop Yields:** Changes in temperature, precipitation, and the increased occurrence of extreme weather events are adversely affecting crop yields. Major crops like wheat, rice, and cotton are particularly vulnerable. - **Soil Degradation:** Increased temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are leading to soil erosion and degradation, further impacting agricultural productivity. 3. **Extreme Weather Events:** - **Floods:** Pakistan has experienced devastating floods, which have become more frequent and severe due to climate change. These floods result in loss of life, property, and agricultural land. - **Heatwaves:** Rising temperatures have led to more intense and prolonged heatwaves, posing serious health risks and affecting productivity. 4. **Coastal Areas:** - **Sea Level Rise:** Coastal regions, particularly the Sindh province, are threatened by sea level rise, leading to coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, and loss of livelihoods for coastal communities. 5. **Biodiversity and Ecosystems:** - **Habitat Loss:** Climate change is causing shifts in ecosystems and habitats, leading to biodiversity loss. Forests, wetlands, and other critical habitats are under threat. 6. **Health:** - **Vector-borne Diseases:** Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns are influencing the distribution and transmission of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever. - **Heat-related Illnesses:** Increased heatwaves are causing heat-related illnesses and deaths, particularly among vulnerable populations. ### **Socio-Economic Impacts:** - **Poverty and Livelihoods:** Climate change disproportionately affects the poor, who are more dependent on climate-sensitive resources and have fewer means to adapt. - **Migration:** Environmental degradation and extreme weather events are leading to displacement and migration, both within and across borders. - **Infrastructure:** Increased frequency of extreme weather events poses risks to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and buildings, impacting economic development. ### **Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies:** 1. **Water Management:** Developing efficient water management systems to conserve water, improve irrigation practices, and ensure sustainable use of water resources. 2. **Agricultural Practices:** Promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices, such as crop diversification, improved irrigation techniques, and the use of drought-resistant crop varieties. 3. **Disaster Preparedness:** Enhancing disaster preparedness and response mechanisms to mitigate the impacts of floods, heatwaves, and other extreme weather events. 4. **Reforestation and Conservation:** Implementing reforestation and conservation projects to protect and restore ecosystems, which can help mitigate climate change impacts. 5. **Public Awareness and Education:** Raising awareness and educating the public about climate change and its impacts to encourage sustainable practices and community-based adaptation initiatives. 6. **Policy and Governance:** Strengthening climate policies and governance structures to ensure effective implementation of adaptation and mitigation strategies at national and local levels. Pakistan\'s vulnerability to climate change necessitates urgent and comprehensive actions to build resilience and adapt to the changing climate. Collaborative efforts at local, national, and international levels are essential to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions vary significantly by country, with some nations contributing more to global emissions due to their large industrial bases, energy consumption, and population sizes. Here is an overview of the GHG emissions by country, focusing on the largest emitters: ### **Top 10 Greenhouse Gas Emitters:** 1. **China:** - **Total Emissions:** Approximately 10 billion metric tons of CO2 equivalent (CO2e) per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 28%. - **Key Sources:** Coal-fired power plants, industrial processes, and transportation. 2. **United States:** - **Total Emissions:** Around 5 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 15%. - **Key Sources:** Fossil fuel combustion for electricity and transportation, industrial processes. 3. **India:** - **Total Emissions:** Approximately 2.6 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 7%. - **Key Sources:** Coal-fired power plants, agriculture, and transportation. 4. **European Union (27 member countries):** - **Total Emissions:** Around 3 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 9%. - **Key Sources:** Energy production, transportation, and industrial processes. 5. **Russia:** - **Total Emissions:** Approximately 1.7 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 5%. - **Key Sources:** Fossil fuel extraction and combustion, industrial processes. 6. **Japan:** - **Total Emissions:** Around 1.2 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 3%. - **Key Sources:** Energy production, transportation, and industrial processes. 7. **Brazil:** - **Total Emissions:** Approximately 1 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 2-3%. - **Key Sources:** Deforestation, agriculture, and energy production. 8. **Indonesia:** - **Total Emissions:** Around 0.8 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 2%. - **Key Sources:** Deforestation, peatland degradation, and energy production. 9. **Canada:** - **Total Emissions:** Approximately 0.7 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 2%. - **Key Sources:** Energy production (especially oil and gas), transportation, and industrial processes. 10. **South Korea:** - **Total Emissions:** Around 0.7 billion metric tons of CO2e per year. - **Percentage of Global Emissions:** About 2%. - **Key Sources:** Energy production, industrial processes, and transportation. **The Paris Agreement** The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted on December 12, 2015, during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, France. The Paris Agreement's central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG emissions and climate-resilient pathway.  **Loss of biodiversity** **Loss of biodiversity** is the reduction in the number of genes, species, microorganisms and other living creatures that maintain the ecological balance on earth. For example, climatic change can affect the habitat of the species. Moreover, it is more noticeable as it is becoming the biggest threat to biodiversity.  The risk of extinction of certain species is evident due to the destruction of their habitats. According to some reports, the present global diversity loss can be up to a thousand times higher and faster than at any other time in entire human history. In addition to this, many scientists believe that this rate will still increase in the upcoming years. **Loss of biodiversity** usually impacts many ecological factors and disrupts life balance. This article will highlight the **causes of** the **loss of biodiversity** detail.  **Causes of biodiversity loss** ------------------------------- One of the primary reasons for the **loss of biodiversity** is due to certain human activities. For example, commercial fishing and hunting have altered natural ecosystem cycles, shifted species distribution patterns, and even introduced new species into previously uninhabited regions.  Below are a few **causes of biodiversity loss**:  ### **Overpopulation ** The slowing down of biodiversity is perhaps due to overpopulation. It has a far greater impact on our planet. It is because overpopulation in a specific area causes exploitation of the earth's natural resources and habitat of species. Also, the government and authorities tend to indulge in deforestation to ensure adequate space for people to reside, which has led to the **loss of biodiversity**, affecting the balance of life. Since 1970, the number of vertebrates has decreased by 60% due to the enormous conversion of forests, marshes, grasslands, and other terrestrial habitats. ### **Illegal wildlife hunt** Under the **causes of biodiversity loss, **illegal wildlife hunting is the greatest threat to biodiversity. Hunting is the primary cause of the loss of significant numbers of animals that occupy important roles in the food chain. Numerous species in the region are negatively impacted since they face food shortages or food insecurity compared to a typical scenario. Hunting is a significant contributor to the extinction of species. ### **Invasive species** An invasive species can thrive in various environmental circumstances and swiftly spread over an area. Invasive organisms are usually non-native. Non-native species can cohabit with native species without causing problems in some cases. Although it can be concerning when a non-native species spreads and becomes invasive. An aggressive or vigorously growing non-native species can overpower or dominate the indigenous native species. It disrupts the natural balance, resulting in the extinction of native species overall, in some cases, entire communities, reducing an area's overall biodiversity and health. ### **Climate Change** Climate change and biodiversity are inextricably linked. Biodiversity is being impacted by increasing temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns, extreme weather events and acidification of the oceans, which is placing additional stress on species already threatened by human activities. Rising global temperatures can modify ecosystems over time by affecting what can grow and dwell there. Rising ocean temperatures have an impact on marine creatures as well. Ocean acidification can make it more difficult for shellfish and corals in the upper ocean to develop shells and rigid skeletons, making them particularly sensitive to rising temperatures. ### **Pollution** Pollution is one of the global change drivers that impact biodiversity. But first, let us understand what pollution is. Pollution refers to the contamination of an area by introducing harmful materials into the natural environment.  For example, oil pipelines that leak into water bodies pollute the water. There are other different types of pollution, including noise pollution, air pollution, plastic pollution and soil pollution that can adversely affect the health of humans and the ecosystem. **Solutions to biodiversity loss** ---------------------------------- The conservation issues provided by the underlying factors are inextricably linked to dealing with biodiversity loss. According to conservation biologists, a combination of public policies and regulatory solutions and ongoing monitoring and education can handle these issues.  Governments, non-governmental groups and the scientific community must collaborate to establish incentives for natural habitat conservation and the protection of species within them from wasteful exploitation while discouraging behaviour that leads to habitat loss and degradation. It is possible to lessen the pressure on ecosystems and species by formulating and implementing remedies for each of these causes of biodiversity loss. **Consequences of biodiversity loss** ------------------------------------- Here are some of the negative **consequences of biodiversity loss. ** ### **It affects our health.** **Loss of biodiversity** impacts the health of humans in different ways. First, let us look at it in terms of pollution. The structure and function of ecosystems are being disrupted, and human activities impact natural biodiversity. These disruptions have an impact on infectious disease patterns. For example, drinking water from a contaminated water body will be detrimental to health and cause severe diseases.  ### **It affects livelihood** Some people make their income from certain species of biodiversity. For example, furniture makers usually get their timber and other necessities from the forest. Once the forest does not have the required number of timber woods due to heavy exploitation, it will impact their livelihood. As a result, it would also affect society's economy. It is why professionals actively kick against the **loss of biodiversity.** ### **Lack of recreational activities** Biodiversity serves as a source of recreational activities like bird watching, hiking, fishing, etc. But if a water body is contaminated, it would be impossible for anyone to engage in fishing. Likewise, suppose air pollution affects the birds. In that case, they will migrate to another area, and bird watching will no longer be possible. **Loss of biodiversity** often starts as a small action, but it eventually escalates and creates more extensive problems. **Conclusion** -------------- We must try to avoid actions that lead to the **loss of biodiversity** at all costs. Additionally, the government needs to make laws to stop humans from carrying out activities that negatively impact biodiversity. Biodiversity affects species in different ways. We know that nobody wants to disrupt the ecosystem, so our goal should be to clean up our acts before it's too late. The article has tried to provide a well-explained description of biodiversity loss, its causes, and what can be potential risks and consequences of not paying attention to it. Ensure to understand the solution to the issue and follow any government policies applied to protect the biodiversity.