TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY - PDF

24 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 2 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY terms and concepts to understand this....

24 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 2 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY terms and concepts to understand this. I Why does sociology need to have a special set of terms when we use terms INTRODUCTION like status and roles or social control The previous chapter introduced us to anyway in our everyday life? an idea both about society as well as For a discipline such as, say, sociology. We saw that a central task of nuclear physics that deals with matters sociology is to explore the interplay of unknown to most people and for which society and the individual. We also saw no word exists in common speech, it that individuals do not float freely in seems obvious that a discipline must society but are part of collective bodies develop a terminology. However, like the family, tribe, caste, class, clan, terminology is possibly even more nation. In this chapter, we move further important for sociology, just because its subject matter is familiar and just to understand the kinds of groups because words do exist to denote it. We individuals form, the kinds of unequal are so well acquainted with the social orders, stratification systems within institutions that surround us that we which, individuals and groups are cannot see them clearly and precisely placed, the way social control operates, (Berger 1976:25). the roles that individuals have and play, For example we may feel that since and the status they occupy. we live in families we know all about In other words we start exploring families. This would be conflating or how society itself functions. Is it equating sociological knowledge harmonious or conflict ridden? Are with common sense knowledge or status and roles fixed? How is social naturalistic explanation, which we have control exercised? What kinds of discussed in Chapter 1. inequalities exist? The question however We also found in the previous remains as to why do we need specific chapter how sociology as a discipline 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 25 has a biography or history. We saw how essentially harmonious. They found it certain material and intellectual useful to compare society to an developments shaped the sociological organism where different parts have a perspective as well as its concerns. function to play for the maintenance of Likewise sociological concepts too have the whole. Others, in particular the a story to tell. Many of the concepts conflict theorists influenced by Marxism reflect the concern of social thinkers to saw society as essentially conflict understand and map the social ridden. changes that the shift from pre-modern Within sociology some tried to to modern entailed. For instance understand human behaviour by sociologists observed that simple, small starting with the individual, i.e. micro scale and traditional societies were interaction. Others began with macro more marked by close, often face-to- structures such as class, caste, market, face interaction. And modern, large state or even community. Concepts scale societies by formal interaction. such as status and role begin with the They therefore distinguished primary individual. Concepts such as social from secondary groups, community control or stratification begin from a from society or association. Other larger context within which individuals concepts like stratification reflect the are already placed. concern that sociologists had in The important point is that these understanding the structured classifications and types that we inequalities between groups in society. discuss in sociology help us as the tools Concepts arise in society. However through which we can understand just as there are different kinds of reality. They are keys to open locks to individuals and groups in society so understand society. They are entry there are different kinds of concepts and points in our understanding, not the ideas. And sociology itself is marked by final answer. But what if the key different ways of understanding society becomes rusted or bent or does not fit and looking at dramatic social changes the lock, or fits in with effort? In such that the modern period brought about. situations we need to change or modify We have seen how even in the early the key. In sociology we both use and stage of sociology’s emergence there also constantly interrogate or question were contrary and contesting the concepts and categories. understandings of society. If for Very often there is considerable Karl Marx class and conflict were key unease about the coexistence of concepts to understand society, social different kinds of definitions or concepts solidarity and collective conscience or even just different views about the were key terms for Emile Durkheim. In same social entity. For example conflict the Post-World War II period sociology theory versus the functionalist theory. was greatly influenced by the structural This multiplicity of approaches is functionalists who found society particularly acute in sociology. And it 2024-25 26 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY cannot but be otherwise for society II itself is diverse. S OCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIETY Activity 1 Sociology is the study of human social Choose any one of the following life. A defining feature of human life is topics for class discussion : that humans interact, communicate democracy is a help or hind- and construct social collectivities. The rance to development comparative and historical perspective of sociology brings home two appa- gender equality makes for a rently innocuous facts. The first that in more harmonious or more divisive society every society whether ancient or feudal or modern, Asian or European or punishments or greater dis- African human groups and collectivities cussion are the best way to exist. The second that the types of resolve conflicts. groups and collectivities are different in Think of other topics. different societies. What kind of differences emerged? Any gathering of people does not Do they reflect different visions of necessarily constitute a social group. what a good society ought to be like? Aggregates are simply collections of Do they reflect different notions of people who are in the same place at the the human being? same time, but share no definite connection with one another. In our discussion on the various Passengers waiting at a railway station terms you will notice how there exists or airport or bus stop or a cinema divergence of views. And how this very audience are examples of aggregates. debate and discussion of differences Such aggregates are often termed as helps us understand society. quasi groups. What kind of groups are these? 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 27 A quasi group is an aggregate or attention to how social groups emerge, combination, which lacks structure or change and get modified. organisation, and whose members A social group can be said to have may be unaware, or less aware, of the at least the following characteristics : existence of groupings. Social classes, (i) persistent interaction to provide status groups, age and gender groups, continuity; crowds can be seen as examples of (ii) a stable pattern of these inter- quasi groups. As these examples actions; suggest quasi groups may well (iii) a sense of belonging to identify become social groups in time and in with other members, i.e. each specific circumstances. For example, individual is conscious of the individuals belonging to a particular group itself and its own set of social class or caste or community may rules, rituals and symbols; not be organised as a collective body. They may be yet to be infused with a (iv) shared interest; sense of “we” feeling. But class and (v) acceptance of common norms and caste have over a period of time given values; and rise to political parties. Likewise (vi) a definable structure. people of different communities in Social structure here refers to India have over the long anti-colonial patterns of regular and repetitive struggle developed an identity as a interaction between individuals or collectivity and group — a nation with groups. A social group thus refers to a a shared past and a common future. collection of continuously interacting The women’s movement brought about persons who share common interest, the idea of women’s groups and culture, values and norms within a organisation. All these examples draw given society. Activity 2 Find out a name that is relevant under each heading. Caste An anti – caste movement A caste based political party Class A class based movement A class based political party Women A women’s movement A women’s organisation Tribe A tribal movement A tribe/tribes based political party Villagers An environmental movement An environmental organisation Discuss whether they were all social groups to start with and if some were not, then at what point can one apply the term ‘social group’ to them, using the term as sociologically understood. 2024-25 28 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 3 Discuss the age group of teenagers. Is it a quasi group or social group? Were ideas about ‘teenage’ and ‘teenagers’ as a special phase in life always there? In traditional societies how was the entry of children into adulthood marked? In contemporary times do marketing strategies and advertisement have anything to do with the strengthening or weakening of this group/quasi group? Identify an advertisement that targets teenagers or pre-teens. Read the section on stratification and discuss how teenage may mean very different life experiences for the poor and rich, for the upper and lower class, for the discriminated and privileged caste. TYPES OF GROUPS However a complete contrast is As you read through this section on probably not an accurate description of reality. groups you will find that different sociologists and social anthropologists Primary and Secondary have categorised groups into different Social Groups types. What you will be struck with however is that there is a pattern in the The groups to which we belong are not typology. In most cases they contrast all of equal importance to us. Some the manner in which people form groups tend to influence many aspects groups in traditional and small scale of our lives and bring us into personal societies to that of modern and large association with others. The term scale societies. As mentioned earlier, primary group is used to refer to a they were struck by the difference small group of people connected by between close, intimate, face-to-face intimate and face-to-face association interaction in traditional societies and and co-operation. The members of impersonal, detached, distant primary groups have a sense of interaction in modern societies. belonging. Family, village and groups Contrast the two types of groups. 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 29 of friends are examples of primary groups. Activity 4 Secondary groups are relatively Collect a copy of a memorandum of large in size, maintain formal and any association that you know of or impersonal relationships. The primary can find out about for example a groups are person-oriented, whereas Residents Welfare Association, a the secondary groups are goal oriented. women’s association (Mahila Schools, government offices, hospitals, Samiti), a Sports Club. You will find students’ associations etc. are examples of secondary groups. clear information about its goals, objectives, membership and other Community and Society rules that govern it. Contrast this or Association with a large family gathering. The idea of comparing and contrasting You may find that many a time the old traditional and agrarian way of that interaction among members of life with the new modern and urban one a formal group over time becomes in terms of their different and closes and ‘just like family and contrasting social relationships and friends.’ This brings home the point lifestyles, dates back to the writings of that concepts are not fixed and classical sociologists. frozen entities. They are indeed The term ‘community’ refers to keys or tools for understanding so- human relationships that are highly ciety and its changes. personal, intimate and enduring, those where a person’s involvement is considerable if not total, as in the family, with real friends or a close-knit In-Groups and Out-Groups group. A sense of belonging marks an in- ‘Society’ or ‘association’ refers to group. This feeling separates ‘us’ or ‘we’ everything opposite of ‘community’, in from ‘them’ or ‘they’. Children particular the apparently impersonal, belonging to a particular school may superficial and transitory relationships form an ‘in-group’ as against those who of modern urban life. Commerce and do not belong to the school. Can you industry require a more calculating, think of other such groups? rational and self-interesting approach An out-group on the other hand is to one’s dealings with others. We make one to which the members of an in- contracts or agreements rather than group do not belong. The members of getting to know one another. You may an out-group can face hostile reactions draw a parallel between the community from the members of the in-group. with the primary group and the Migrants are often considered as an association with the secondary group. out-group. However, even here the 2024-25 30 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY actual definition of who belongs and but we do identify ourselves with who does not, changes with time and that group. Reference groups are social contexts. important sources of information The well known sociologist about culture, lifestyle, aspiration M.N. Srinivas observed while he was and goal attainments. carrying out a census in Rampura in In the colonial period many middle 1948 how distinctions were made class Indians aspired to behave like between recent and later migrants. proper Englishman. In that sense they He writes: could be seen as a reference group for I heard villagers use two expressions the aspiring section. But this process which I came to realise were significant: was gendered, i.e. it had different the recent immigrants were almost implications for men and women. Often contemptuously described as nenne Indian men wanted to dress and dine monne bandavartu (‘came yesterday or like the British men but wanted the the day before’) while old immigrants Indian women to remain ‘Indian’ in were described as arsheyinda their ways. Or aspire to be a bit like the bandavaru (‘came long ago’) or proper English woman but also not khadeem kulagalu (‘old lineages’), quite like her. Do you still find this valid (Srinivas 1996:33). today? Activity 5 Peer Groups This is a kind of primary group, Find out about the experience of usually formed between individuals immigrants in other countries. Or who are either of similar age or who are may be even from different parts of in a common professional group. Peer our own country. pressure refers to the social pressure You will find that relationships exerted by one’s peers on what one between groups change and modify. ought to do or not. People once considered members of an out-group become in-group members. Can you find out about Activity 6 such processes in history? Do your friends or others of your age group influence you? Are you Reference Group concerned with their approval or disapproval about the way you For any group of people there are dress, behave, the kind of music always other groups whom they look you like to listen to or the kind of up to and aspire to be like. The groups whose lifestyles are emulated films you prefer? Do you consider are known as reference groups. We do it to be social pressure? Discuss. not belong to our reference groups 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 31 S OCIAL STRATIFICATION enter into details about estates here but very briefly touch upon caste and class Social stratification refers to the as systems of social stratification. We existence of structured inequalities shall be dealing in greater detail with between groups in society, in terms of class, caste, gender as bases of social their access to material or symbolic stratification in the book, Under- rewards. Thus stratification can most standing Society. simply be defined as structural inequalities between different Caste groupings of people. Often social stratification is compared to the In a caste stratification system an geological layering of rock in the earth’s individual’s position totally depends on surface. Society can be seen as the status attributes ascribed by birth consisting of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with rather than on any which are achieved the more favoured at the top and the during the course of one’s life. This is less privileged near the bottom. not to say that in a class society there Inequality of power and advantage is no systematic constraint on is central for sociology, because of the achievement imposed by status crucial place of stratification in the attributes such as race and gender. organisation of society. Every aspect of However, status attributes ascribed by the life of every individual and birth in a caste society define an household is affected by stratification. individual’s position more completely Opportunities for health, longevity, than they do in class society. security, educational success, fulfillment In traditional India different castes in work and political influence are all formed a hierarchy of social precedence. unequally distributed in systematic ways. Each position in the caste structure was Historically four basic systems of defined in terms of its purity or stratification have existed in human pollution relative to others. The societies: slavery, caste, estate and underlying belief was that those who class. Slavery is an extreme form of are most pure, the Brahmin priestly inequality in which some individuals castes, are superior to all others and are literally owned by others. It has the Panchamas, sometimes called the existed sporadically at many times and ‘outcastes’ are inferior to all other places, but there are two major castes. The traditional system is examples of a system of slavery; ancient generally conceptualised in terms of the Greece and Rome and the Southern four fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, States of the USA in the 18th and 19th Vaishyas and Shudras. In reality there are centuries. As a formal institution, innumerable occupation-based caste slavery has gradually been eradicated. groups, called jatis. But we do continue to have bonded The caste system in India has labour, often even of children. Estates undergone considerable changes over characterised feudal Europe. We do not the years. Endogamy and ritual 2024-25 32 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY avoidance of contact with members of with us. This is because they feel so-called lower castes were considered and believe they are superior. It has critical for maintaining purity by the so- been like that for years. No matter called upper castes. Changes brought how well we dress they are not in by urbanisation inevitably prepared to accept certain things challenged this. Read well known (Franco et. al. 2004:150). sociologist A.R. Desai’s observations below. Even today acute caste Other social consequences of discrimination exists. At the same time urbanisation in India are commented the working of democracy has affected upon by sociologist A.R. Desai as: the caste system. Castes as interest groups have gained strength. We have Modern industries brought into also seen discriminated castes asserting b e i n g modern cities honey- their democratic rights in society. combed with cosmopolitan hotels, restaurants, theatres, trams, Class buses, railways. The modest hotels There have been many attempts to and restaurants catered for the explain class. We mention here, very workers and middle classes became briefly just the central ideas of Marx, crowded in cities with persons Weber and that of, functionalism. In belonging to all castes and even the Marxist theory social classes are creeds... In trains and buses one defined by what relation they have to occasionally rubbed shoulders with the means of production. Questions members of the depressed classes... could be asked as to whether groups should not, however be supposed are owners of means of production such that caste had vanished (Desai as land or factories? Or whether they 1975:248). are owners of nothing but their own labour? Weber used the term life- While change did take place, chances, which refers to the rewards discrimination was not so easy to do and advantages afforded by market away with, as a first person narrative capacity. Inequality, Weber argued suggests. might be based on economic relations. In the mill there may be no open But it could also be based on prestige discrimination of the kind that exists or on political power. in the villages, but experience of private The functionalist theory of social interactions tells another story. Parmar stratification begins from the general observed… presupposition or belief of function- alism that no society is “classless” or They will not even drink water from unstratified. The main functional our hands and they sometimes use necessity explains the universal abusive language when dealing presence of social stratification in 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 33 requirements faced by a society the lower levels of the system, are not of placing and motivating individuals just disadvantaged socially but also in the social structure. Social economically. inequality or stratification is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which Status and Role societies ensure that the most The two concepts ‘status’ and ‘role’ are important positions are deliberately often seen as twin concepts. A status is filled by the most qualified persons. Is simply a position in society or in a this true? group. Every society and every group In a traditional caste system social has many such positions and every hierarchy is fixed, rigid and transmitted individual occupies many such across generations. Modern class positions. system in contrast is open and Status thus refers to the social achievement-based. In democratic position with defined rights and duties societies there is nothing to legally stop assigned to these positions. To a person from the most deprived class illustrate, mother occupies a status, and caste from reaching the highest which has many norms of conduct as position. well as certain responsibilities and prerogatives. Activity 7 A role is the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. Status is Find out more about the life of occupied, but roles are played. We may the late President K. R. Narayanan. say that a status is an institutionalised Discuss the concept of ascription role. It is a role that has become and achieved status, caste and regularised, standardised and forma- class in this context. lised in the society at large or in any of the specific associations of society. Such stories of achievement do It must be apparent that each exist and are sources of immense individual in a modern complex society inspiration. Yet for the most part the such as ours occupies many different structure of the class system persists. kinds of status during the course of Sociological studies of social mobility, his/her life. You as a school student even in western societies are far may be a student to your teacher, a removed from the ideal model of perfect customer to your grocer, a passenger mobility. Sociology has to be sensitive to the bus driver, a brother or sister to to both the challenges to the caste your sibling and a patient to the doctor. system as well as the persistence of Needless to say, we could keep adding discrimination. Significantly those, at to the list. The smaller and simpler the 2024-25 34 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY society, the fewer the kinds of status occupies it or to his/her performance that an individual can have. or to his/her actions. The kind of In a modern society an individual value attached to the status or to the as we saw occupies multiple status office is called prestige. People can which is sociologically termed as status rank status in terms of their high or set. Individuals acquire different status low prestige. The prestige of a doctor at various stages of life. A son becomes may be high in comparison to a a father, a grandfather, and then great shopkeeper, even if the doctor may grandfather and so on. This is called a earn less. It is important to keep in status sequence for it refers to the mind that ideas of what occupation is status, which is attained in succession considered prestigious varies across or sequence at various stages of life. societies and across periods. An ascribed status is a social position, which a person occupies because of birth, or assumes involuntarily. The most common bases Activity 8 for ascribed status are age, caste, race What kinds of jobs are considered and kinship. Simple and traditional prestigious in your society? societies are marked by ascribed status. Compare these with your friends. An achieved status on the other hand Discuss the similarities and refers to a social position that a person differences. Try and understand the occupies voluntarily by personal causes for the same. ability, achievements, virtues and choices. The most common bases for achieved status are educational People perform their roles according qualifications, income, and professional to social expectations, i.e. role taking expertise. Modern societies are and role playing. A child learns to characterised by achievements. Its behave in accordance with how her members are accorded prestige on the behaviour will be seen and judged by basis of their achievements. How often others. you would have heard the phrase “you Role conflict is the incompatibility have to prove yourself”. In traditional among roles corresponding to one or societies your status was defined and more status. It occurs when contrary ascribed at birth. However, as expectations arise from two or more discussed above, even in modern roles. A common example is that of the achievement-based societies, ascribed status matters. Activity 9 Status and prestige are interconnected terms. Every status is Find out how a domestic worker or accorded certain rights and values. a construction labourer faces role Values are attached to the social conflict. position, rather than to the person who 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 35 middle class working woman who has is mistaken. It suggests that to juggle her role as mother and wife individuals simply take on roles, rather at home and that of a professional at than creating or negotiating them. In work. fact, socialisation is a process in which It is a common place assumption humans can exercise agency; they are that men do not face role conflict. not simply passive subjects waiting to Sociology being both an empirical and be instructed or programmed. comparative discipline suggests Individuals come to understand and otherwise. assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction. This Khasi matriliny generates intense discussion perhaps will make you role conflict for men. They are torn reflect upon the relationship between between their responsibilities to the individual and society, which we their natal house on the one hand had studied in Chapter 1. and to their wife and children on Roles and status are not given and the other. T hey feel deprived of sufficient authority to command fixed. People make efforts to fight their children’s loyalty and lack the against discrimination roles and status freedom to pass on after death, even for example those based on caste, race their self-acquired property to their or gender. At the same time there are children… sections in society who oppose such The strain affects Khasi women, in changes. Likewise individual violation a way more intensely. A woman can of roles are often punished. Society thus never be fully assured that her functions not just with roles and status husband does not find his sister’s but also with social control. house more congenial place than her own house (Nongbri 2003:190). Activity 10 Role stereotyping is a process of Collect newspaper reports where reinforcing some specific role for some member of the society. For example dominant sections of society seek to men and women are often socialised in impose control and punish those stereotypical roles, as breadwinner and whom they consider to have homemaker respectively. Social roles transgressed or violated socially and status are often wrongly seen as prescribed roles. fixed and unchanging. It is felt that individuals learn the expectations that S OCIETY AND SOCIAL CONTROL surround social positions in their particular culture and perform these Social control is one of the most roles largely as they have been defined. generally used concepts in sociology. Through socialisation, individuals It refers to the various means used by internalise social roles and learn how a society to bring its recalcitrant or to carry them out. This view, however, unruly members back into line. 2024-25 36 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY You will recall how sociology has groups on the one hand, and on the different perspectives and debates other, to mitigate tensions and conflicts about the meaning of concepts. You among individuals and groups to will also recall how functionalist maintain social order and social sociologists understood society as cohesion. In this way social control is essentially harmonious and conflict seen as necessary to stability in society. theorists saw society as essentially Conflict theorists usually would see unequal, unjust and exploitative. We social control more as a mechanism to also saw how some sociologists impose the social control of dominant focussed more on the individual and social classes on the rest of society. society, others on collectivities like Stability would be seen as the writ of classes, races and castes. one section over the other. Likewise, law For a functionalist perspective social would be seen as the formal writ of the control refers to: (i) the use of force to powerful and their interests on society. regulate the behaviour of the individual Social control refers to the social and groups and also refers to the process, techniques and strategies by (ii) enforcing of values and patterns for which behaviours of individual or a maintaining order in society. Social group are regulated. It refers both to control here is directed to restrain the use of force to regulate the deviant behaviour of individuals or behaviour of the individual and groups The ultimate and, no doubt, the oldest means of social control is physical violence... even in the politely operated societies of modern democracies the ultimate argument is violence. No state can exist without a police force or its equivalent in armed might... In any functioning society violence is used economically and as a last resort, with the mere threat of this ultimate violence sufficing for the day-to-day exercise of social control... Where human beings live or work in compact groups, in which they are personally known and to which they are tied by feelings of personal loyalty (the kind that sociologists call primary groups), very potent and simultaneously very subtle mechanisms of control are constantly brought to bear upon the actual or potent deviant... One aspect of social control that ought to be stressed is the fact that it is frequently based on fraudulent claims... A little boy can exercise considerable control over his peer group by having a big brother who, if need be, can be called upon to beat up any opponents. In the absence of such a brother, however it is possible to invent one. It will then be a question of the public-relations talents of the little boy as to whether he will succeed in translating his invention into actual control (Berger 84-90). Have you ever seen or heard a young child threaten another with “ I will tell my elder brother.” Can you think of other examples? 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 37 and also refers to the enforcing of values and patterns for maintaining order in Activity 11 society. Social control may be informal or Can you think of examples drawn formal. When the codified, systematic, from your life how this ‘unofficial’ and other formal mechanism of control social control operates? Have you in is used, it is known as formal social class or in your peer group noticed control. There are agencies and how a child who behaves a bit mechanism of formal social control, for differently from the rest is treated? example, law and the state. In a modern Have you witnessed incidents where society formal mechanisms and children are bullied by their peer agencies of social control are group to be more like the other emphasised. children? In every society there is another type of social control that is known as informal social control. It is personal, newspaper report which is given below unofficial and uncodified. They include and identify the different agencies of smiles, making faces, body language, social control involved. frowns, criticism, ridicule, laughter etc. A sanction is a mode of reward or There can be great variations in their punishment that reinforces socially use within the same society. In day- expected forms of behaviour. Social to-day life they are quite effective. control can be positive or negative. However, in some cases informal Members of societies can be rewarded methods of social control may not be for good and expected behaviour. On adequate in enforcing conformity or the other hand, negative sanctions are obedience. There are various agencies also used to enforce rules and to of informal social control e.g. family, restrain deviance. religion, kinship, etc. Have you heard Deviance refers to modes of action, about honour killing? Read the which do not conform to the norms or Man kills sister for marrying from outside the caste... The elder brother of a 19-year-old girl here carried out an apparent ‘honour killing’ by allegedly beheading her while she was asleep at a hospital... police said on Monday. The girl... was undergoing treatment at... Hospital for stab wounds after her brother... attacked her on December 16 for marrying outside the caste, they said. She and her lover eloped on December 10 and returned to their houses here on December 16 after getting married, which was opposed by her parents, they said. The Panchayat also tried to pressurise the couple but they refused to be swayed. 2024-25 38 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY values held by most of the members of be considered deviant at one time, and a group or society. What is regarded as be applauded at another time even in ‘deviant’ is as widely variable as the the same society. You are already norms and values that distinguish familiar with how sociology is different different cultures and subcultures. from common sense. The specific Likewise ideas of deviance are terms and concepts discussed in this challenged and change from one period chapter will help you further to move to another. For example, a woman towards a sociological understanding choosing to become an astronaut may of society. GLOSSARY Conflict Theories : A sociological perspective that focuses on the tensions, divisions and competing interests present in human societies. Conflict theorists believe that the scarcity and value of resources in society produces conflict as groups struggle to gain access to and control those resources. Many conflict theorists have been strongly influenced by the writings of Marx. Functionalism : A theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the function they perform — that is the contribution they make to the continuity of a society. And on a view of society as a complex system whose various parts work in relationship to each other in a way that needs to be understood. Identity : The distinctive characteristic of a person’s character or the character of a group which relate to who they are and what is meaningful to them. Some of the main sources of identity include gender, nationality or ethnicity, social class. Means of Production : The means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations between producers. Microsociology and Macrosociology : The study of everyday behaviour in situations of face-to-face interaction is usually called microsociology. In microsociology, analysis occurs at the level of individuals or small groups. It differs from macrosociology, which concerns itself with large-scale social systems, like the political system or the economic order. Though they appear to be distinct, they are closely connected. Natal : It relates to the place or time of one’s birth. R Norms : Rules of behaviour which reflect or embody a culture’s values, either prescribing a given type of behaviour, or forbidding it. Norms are always 2024-25 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 39 backed by sanctions of one kind or another, varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment or execution. Sanctions : A mode of reward or punishment that reinforce socially expected forms of behaviour. EXERCISES 1. Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology? 2. As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do you see these groups from a sociological perspective? 3. What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society? How are individual lives affected by stratification? 4. What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres of society are different? Discuss. 5. Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change. READINGS BERGER, L. PETER. 1976. Invitation to Sociology : A Humanistic Perspective. Penguin, Harmondsworth. BOTTOMORE, TOM. and ROBERT, NISBET. 1978. A History of Sociological Analysis. Basic Books, New York. BOTTOMORE, TOM. 1972. Sociology. Vintage Books, New York. DESHPANDE, SATISH. 2003. Contemporary India : A Sociological View. Viking, Delhi. FERNANDO, FRANCO. MACWAN, JYOTSNA. and RAMANATHAN, SUGUNA. 2004. Journeys to Freedom Dalit Narratives. Samya, Kolkata. GIDDENS, ANTHONY. 2001. Sociology. Fourth Edition, Polity Press, Cambridge. JAYARAM, N. 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan India Ltd, Delhi. NONGBRI, TIPLUT. 2003. ‘Gender and the Khasi Family Structure : The Meghalaya Succession to Self-Acquired Property Act,1984’, in ed. REGE, SHARMILA. Sociology of Gender The Challenge of Feminist Sociological Knowledge. Sage Publications, New Delhi, pp.182-194. SRINIVAS, M.N. 1996. Village, Caste, Gender and Method. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 2024-25