Social 10 Textbook Chapter 09 PDF

Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:13 PM Page 180 Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chapter Focus...

Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:13 PM Page 180 Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chapter Focus To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies Chapter of historical globalization? So far, in working toward an answer to this question, you’ve looked at some examples of early contact 9 between cultures, and the forms this interaction took. You have seen that contact was not always an easy relationship, and that in many cases imperializing countries felt it was their duty to “civilize” people from the colonies by assimilating them into the dominant society. Today, attitudes toward other cultures have changed, yet the effects of historical globalization are still with us. Social problems, such as abuse, alcoholism, and suicide, plague many Indigenous communities. In some former colonies, political and civil unrest, human rights abuses, and poverty continue to hobble progress. What has been done recently to address these problems? Do we have an obligation to respond to these problems, even though we were not Figure 9-1 around when they were caused? If so, how far does our responsibility extend? And if we choose to ignore these problems, what is likely to In this chapter you will examine some of the contemporary economic, social, and happen? political problems among Indigenous communities that can be attributed, Chapter Issue directly or indirectly, to the continuing impact of historical globalization and This chapter focuses on some contemporary global issues that have imperialism. As “global” citizens, how roots in historical globalization and the policies of imperialism. From much responsibility must we accept for ▲ these examples, you will begin to explore the Chapter Issue: To what these contemporary problems? extent are contemporary societies affected by Imperialism Social historical imperialism? As you gather Pressures ideas and opinions about this issue, you should be in a better position Eurocentrism to begin to form an opinion about the Main Issue for Part 2: To Consequences Contemporary Pressures of what extent should contempo- of Historical Globalization rary society respond to the Society Globalization Today legacies of historical global- Economic Pressures ization? Mercantilism Political Pressures 180 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:13 PM Page 181 Contemporary Social Issues and Historical Imperialism Question for Inquiry How does historical imperialism relate to current social issues? Does the past affect the present? We all like to think that we are free agents, able to make our own choices and carve our own future. But think about it. Doesn’t your family history have some effect on your life? Did your parents or grandparents come to Canada from another country? Can you imagine how your life might have been different if they had not made that choice? Some of you may have grandparents who lived through, or fought in, the Second World War. How do you think that experience affected your family? Like it or not, the past influences all of us, in good ways and in bad. Ideas and Opinions As you read in Chapter 8, even before Canada became a nation in 1867, the governments of Upper and Lower Canada were passing laws “ I want to get rid of the Indian designed to assimilate First Nations peoples into colonial society. One problem. Our objective is to of these, the practice of sending First Nations children to residential continue until there is not a single schools, continued until the 1970s and beyond in some parts of the Indian in Canada that has not been country. To get a sense of how history—and in particular, imperial- absorbed into the body politic and ism—may be connected to social conditions in Canada today, let’s look there is no Indian question. Education more closely at how these schools operated. is in the forefront of their requirements ” now. Social Effects Associated with Residential Schools —Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Where do we learn about our culture? For most of us, our first and Superintendent of Indian Affairs most important source of information is our family. Schools also play from 1913 to 1932, quoted in a role in reinforcing what we learn about our culture at home, as you J. Leslie and R. Maguire, eds., read in Chapter 5. But what would it be like to be taken away from The Historical Development of your culture at an early age? What if the purpose of school was to the Indian Act, 2nd ed. (Ottawa: Treaties and Historical Research undo all that you learned from your parents? This was the experience Centre, Indian Affairs and Northern of many residential school students in Canada. Development, 1978), p. 115. In 1884, the Indian Act was amended to make attendance in Indian schools compulsory for status Indians under the age of 16 Why do you think Duncan Campbell until they reached 18 years of age. This legislation created a system of Scott saw education as so important government-funded, church-run Residential Schools. The schools in fulfilling the government’s goal of were located in every province and territory except Newfoundland, assimilation? New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 181 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 182 Legend Residential Schools Cities and towns Aklavik Stringer Hall Grollier Hall Fort McPherson St. Paul’s Hostel Coppermine YUKON TERRITORY Great Bear 0 400 800 km Lake Ridgeview Home Scale Whitehorse for Children NORTHWEST TERRITORIES NUNAVUT Coudert Hall Carcross Fort Simpson Yellowknife Chesterfield Inlet NEW Lower Post FOU Fort Providence Great Slave Fort Smith ND Lake Fort Resolution LA Hay River ND AN D HUDSON LA Assumption BAY B N Port Harrison RA Fort Vermillion Lake Athabasca DO Fort Chipewyan Churchill Vocational BRITISH COLUMBIA R Centre Lesser Slave Lake Kitamaat St. Augustine Whitefish Lake Desmarais SASKATCHEWAN Lejac Grouard St. John’s Sturgeon Lake JoussardWabasca QUÉBEC MANITOBA ALBERTA Lac La Biche Beauval Fort George Lac La Ronge JAMES Sept-Îles Blue Quills Cross Lake St. Albert Sturgeon Landing BAY Cariboo Edmonton St. Michael’s Edmonton Onion Lake Guy Hill Norway House Ermineskin Emmanuel College PRINCE Red Deer Thunderchild Prince Albert McKay St. Ann’s EDWARD Ahousaht Alberni Kamloops Battleford St. Michael’s Lake Sechelt Morley Moose Factory ISLAND Christie Calgary Saskatoon Keeseekouse Winnipeg Squamish St. George’s Sarcee Fort Pelly Pine Creek NEW Charlottetown Kuper Island Yale Old Suris Waterhen Poplar Hill Pointe-Bleue Vancouver Coqualeetza St. Joseph’s Crowfoot Gordon’s Crowstand St. Philips ONTARIO BRUNSWICK St. Mary’s St. Eugene Muscowequan File Hills Dauphin Dog Creek Fredericton Victoria Qu’Appelle Shubenacadie St. Cyprian Sacred Heart Round Lake Sandy Bay La Tuque St. Mary’s (Blood) Regina Birtle Fort Alexander Pelican Lake Regina Portage la Prairie Rupert’s Land McIntosh Amos Québec Halifax St. Paul’s (Blood) Elkhorn Marieval Brandon Assiniboia St. Mary’s Fort NOVA SCOTIA Winnipeg St. Boniface Cecilia Jeffrey Chapleau Fort Frances William Lake Superior Spanish Girl’s School Shingwauk Home Spanish Boy’s School Wikwemikong Lake Huron Lake Ontario Toronto Mohawk Institute Source: Prepared for Indian Residential Schools Resolution Lake Mount Elgin Michigan Lake Canada by Public History Inc. (Version: 2003-02). Erie ▲ One hundred thirty residential schools existed from 1884 to Figure 9-2 1996. Students were forced to stay in residences located on the How would you characterize the distribu- school grounds and were many times forcibly removed from their tion pattern of residential schools across homes. Parents of children who did not go to school were fined or Canada? What implications might this jailed. Because of the distances between the residential schools and have for First Nations and Inuit children the children’s home communities, many students did not have any in far northern communities? What might explain the lack of residential schools contact with their parents for up to 10 months at a time. The in some areas? students were not allowed to speak First Nations languages or Inuktitut in the school. Siblings were usually placed on different floors to make sure this did not happen. They were also not allowed to play games with one another that they had learned at home. Severe punishment was doled out to those who broke this rule. 182 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 183 T I M E L I N E Residential Schools in Canada 1620– The Recollets, Jesuits, and Ursulines operate the first boarding schools for 1689: First Nations children. These schools eventually closed because of lack of ▲ Figure 9-3 students. What evidence, if 1833: The Mohawk Institute, near Toronto, takes in its first student boarders and any, do you see in becomes a model for the residential school system. this timeline that the problems associated 1879: Journalist Nicholas Flood Davin recommends establishing industrial schools to with the residential “civilize” the First Nations. school system should 1920: An amendment to the Indian Act makes it mandatory for parents to send their be the responsibility children to school. of the government? 1948: A Senate report questions whether children should be removed from their communities and recommends that they attend mainstream schools. 1969: The federal government takes over the running of the schools. It begins closing residential schools. Parents must now give their consent for children to attend. 1988: The first two residential school civil claims are filed. 1990: Phil Fontaine, Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs, is the first public figure to say he was abused at a residential school. 1991: A Catholic teaching order, the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, presents an apology to First Nations peoples. 1993: The Anglican Church apologizes. 1994: The Presbyterian Church offers First Nations peoples a confession. 1995: Arthur Plint, a former school supervisor, is convicted of 18 counts of indecent assault against students. 1996: The last government-run residential school closes. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Report is released. 1998: The United Church apologizes. Indian Affairs Minister Jane Stewart apologizes on behalf of the government. The Aboriginal Healing Foundation is created. 1999: In one year, 3620 former students file claims against both the government and the churches who ran the schools. 2002: As the number of cases before the courts continues to grow, the government proposes an alternative dispute resolution system to settle claims out of court. 2003: The Anglican and Presbyterian churches sign agreements with the government to compensate former students. —Source: adapted from Time Magazine, July 28, 2005: An agreement in principle is signed by the Assembly of First Nations and 2003, pp. 34, 35, and the government. The agreement provides former students with financial http://www.irsr-rqpi.gc.ca/ compensation for loss of language and culture without forcing them to give english/historical_ up their right to sue for physical sexual abuse. events.html. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 183 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 184 Flora Merrick is an Ojibwa of the Long Plain First Nation. She READING STRATEGY attended residential school in Portage La Prairie, Manitoba for 10 years. This is how she remembers her experience there: To better understand the expe- riences of residential school students, think about how you I was punished for speaking my own language and was always would have felt if you had frightened and scared of what the teachers and principals would do to been in their place. What me. It was like being in prison. would you have thought about During my stay at Portage la Prairie residential school, I witnessed your school? How would you the injustices of beatings and abuse of other children, some of whom were have coped? my siblings. We were treated worse than animals and lived in constant fear. I have carried the trauma of my experience and seeing what happened to other children all my life. I cannot forget one painful memory. It occurred in 1932 when I was 15 years old. My father came to the Portage la Prairie residential school to tell my sister and I that our mother had died and to take us to the funeral. The principal of the school would not let us go with our father to the funeral. My little sister and I cried so much, we were taken away and locked in a dark room for about two weeks. After I was released from the dark room and allowed to be with other residents, I tried to run away to my father and family. I was caught in the bush by teachers and taken back to the school and strapped so severe- ly that my arms were black and blue for several weeks. After my father saw what they did to me, he would not allow me to go back to school after the school year ended. —Source: Testimony from the Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs, Figure 9-4 http://www.parl.gc.ca/committee/CommitteePublication.aspx?SourceId=103645. This picture of students at the St. Peter’s Mission Indian Residential School in Grouard, Alberta, was taken in the mid- Social Consequences of Residential Schools 1920s. How would an Aboriginal Elder Some people in Canada believe that many of the social problems interpret this photograph? How might Duncan Campbell Scott see it? that Aboriginal communities face today are consequences, directly ▲ or indirectly, of the residential school system and the policy of assimilation that underlay them. Physical and emotional abuse was only part of the problem associated with residential schools. Former National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) Matthew Coon Come, who attended residential schools in Ontario and Québec for nine years, claims that “Basically, the goal was to take the Indian out of the Indian” (Time Magazine, July 28, 2003, p. 35). 184 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 185 As you can see in Figure 9-5, some former residential school students were left with a deep-seated feeling of loss and separation from their families and cultures. Feelings like this can lead to depres- sion, a condition that can, in turn, lead to such social problems as alcohol and drug abuse, family violence, and even suicide. Some experts see many negative long-term effects of the residential school experience. See the next page for other views on this issue. Treatment in Effects on Individuals and ▲ Figure 9-5 Residential Schools Communities Effects of the residential school Separation from community Poor self-esteem experience. Consider how the short-term Separation from family Lack of positive role models effects listed at left could snowball Prohibition against speaking Loss of parenting skills into long-term effects. For example, Aboriginal languages Inability to speak own language if a student of the school lost fluency Exposure to negative views Loss of culture and identity in his or her first language, how would about Aboriginal cultures Separation from community it affect whether or not the next Harsh conditions and family generation learns the language? And Physical and sexual abuse Feeling of being unloved, the next generation? uncared for Fast Facts Ideas and Opinions According to one study, the lowest “ We heard from a few people who are grateful for what they learned rates of teen suicide are found in at these schools, but we heard from more who described deep communities that have made some ” scars—not least in their inability to give and receive love. gains in self-government, land claims, and improved educational —Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Royal Commission on services. Aboriginal Peoples, 1996. Volume Three: Gathering Strength, —Source: Michael Chandler http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ch/rcap/rpt/gs_e.html. and Christopher Lalonde, “Cultural Continuity As a Hedge Why might the commission have heard more from those who had bad against Suicide in Canada’s First experiences at residential schools than from students who were not abused? Nations,” Transcultural Psychiatry, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 191–219. Suicide Rate for First Nations and Canada, 1979—1994 Why do you think these factors 60 might affect a teen’s likelihood of 50 committing suicide? ▲ First Nations Figure 9-6 40 Suicide rates among First Nations and all of Canada, 1979–1994. Rate per 100 000 In your opinion, to what extent is Canadian society as a whole 30 affected by, or responsible for, the high suicide rate among Aboriginal peoples? Follow the Web link on the Perspectives 20 on Globalization website to a CBC radio report about the teen Canada suicide rate on northern Ontario reserves. 10 Source: Kirmayer, L.J. et al. (1993). Suicide in Canadian Aboriginal 0 populations: Emerging trends in research and intervention (Report No.1). 86 19 8 19 3 84 85 79 19 2 19 0 92 94 83 81 80 89 91 87 8 9 8 9 Montréal, Québec: Culture & Mental Health Research Unit, 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Year Sir Mortimer B. Davis—Jewish General Hospital. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 185 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 186 Other Perspectives on Residential Schools No one denies that some students suffered terrible abuse in the residential schools. But not everyone believes the consequences of the schools were negative for everybody, or that compensation is appropriate. According to former residential school teacher Bernice Logan, We [residential school workers] don’t feel the church did anything wrong by taking these children and educating them. These schools were partly orphanages. Children with terrible home lives and children whose parents wanted them to come went to the schools. —Bernice Logan, Founder, Association of Former Indian Residential School Workers, Anglican Journal, April 2003. Some observers have pointed out that the education received by Aboriginal children at the schools has been at least partially responsible for the emergence of a newly powerful, well-educated leadership in the Aboriginal community: Now Indians* are organized, politicized, and led by people who under- stand the relationship between the Native population and the government. 1 Why do you suppose positive These leaders appreciate the need of the Aboriginal peoples to acquire means stories about residential schools to control their own lives. Ironically, it was the residential school, which was get less media coverage than designed to be the benign exterminator of Indian identity, that indirectly negative ones? played a role in its perpetuation and revitalization. 2 How do you think Flora Merrick —J.R. Miller, “The Irony of Residential Schooling,” would respond to these argu- Canadian Journal of Native Education, Vol. 14, 1987. ments about the residential schools? Here is the point of view of a former student: 3 Consider the perspective or It was good teaching for survival in society. We learned reading, writing, point of view reflected in each history, science, as well as how to operate machinery and farm chores. I of the statements above. In what really appreciated being able to learn all that. ways are they similar? How do they differ? — Rufus Goodstriker, former residential school student, Alberta Report, 1998, http://www.taxpayer.com/main/news.php?news_id=2275. 4 Do you think Rufus Goodstriker and J.R. Miller would whole- heartedly support Bernice *Today, the term “First Nations” is preferable when referring to all First Nations people generally. Using a people’s own name for themselves in their own language is preferable Logan’s statement? Why or when referring to a particular nation. why not? 186 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 187 SP Thinking Creatively S K I L L P AT H Use Six Hats Thinking In the following pages we will look at finding ways to address the social legacies of residential schools. It will require that we look at the problem from several angles, and think creatively. Dr. Edward de Bono, a leading authority in creative thinking, has developed a thinking framework based on the symbolic wearing of six “hats.” The six hats represent six types of thinking. Putting on a hat of a particular colour means purposefully guiding your thinking about a topic or issue in a particular way, and sometimes adopting a point of view on a topic or issue that is not necessarily your own. Use the six-step process below to consider creative ways to assess the lega- cy of residential schools in Canadian society. Step Put on the “White Hat” 1 This hat means group members are thinking about facts, figures, and information needs and gaps. Each participant presents the facts of the case that he or she has collected. Step Put on the “Green Hat” 2 The green hat is the hat of creativity, alternatives, proposals, what is interesting, and changes. As a group, imagine and suggest how the situation could be handled. Step Put on the “Yellow Hat” 3 Wearing the yellow hat means thinking positively about how a suggestion will work and why it will offer benefits. It can be used to find something of value in what has already happened or to predict the positive results of some proposed action. Step Put on the “Black Hat” 4 This is the hat of judgment. The black hat is used to point out why a suggestion does not fit the facts or the historical experience. The black hat must always be logical, and focus on the disadvantages and draw- backs to alternative proposals. Step Put on the “Red Hat” 5 Putting on the red hat gives permission to a thinker to put forward his or her feelings, intuitions, and emotions about the subject. Each group participant explains his or her “gut reaction” to the proposals that have been put forward. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 187 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 188 Step Put on the “Blue Hat” 6 Wearing the blue hat encourages the group to think about its own thinking process. You look not at the subject itself, but at the think- ing about the subject. You might, for example, review the notes your note-taker has compiled and discuss how successfully you worked as a group. Wearing the blue hat may guide you to put on the green hat again, to Figure 9-7 ▲ refine your suggestion or proposal. Which of the hats described Step Practise Your Skill! on these Skill Path pages do you wear most often? 7 1 Apply It. As you will read on the following pages, part of the agreement reached between First Nations and the government involves a fund to be used for projects aimed at preserving the legacy of the residential schools. Working in groups, use the six hats thinking approach to come up with new and interesting ways to use this money. Your aim is to educate the public and ensure that we learn from the residential school experience. Spend at least five minutes on each type of thinking. Select a group member to present the highlights of your six discussions to the class. What ideas did you come up with? 2 Discuss It. Is it a good idea to preserve the memory of what went on in the residential schools? Or would it be better to forget about them and move on? Discuss with your group. 3 Remember It. De Bono’s “six hats” process does not require that you be part of a group to do some creative thinking about a problem. Try wearing some or all of the different hats the next time you are asked to devise an informed opinion on an issue. The Government Response to the Legacies of Residential Schools In 1998, Minister of Indian Affairs Jane Stewart issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government to the former students of residen- tial schools. She said, in part: Attitudes of racial and cultural superiority led to a suppression of Aboriginal culture and values. As a country, we are burdened by past actions that resulted in weakening the identity of Aboriginal peoples, suppressing their languages and cultures, and outlawing spiritual practices. We must recognize the impact of these actions on the once self-sustaining nations that were disaggregated [divided into parts], disrupted, limited or even destroyed by the dispossession of traditional territory, by the reloca- tion of Aboriginal people, and by some provisions of the Indian Act. 188 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 189 Indian Residential School Claimants ▲ (11 715 as of March 31, 2003) Figure 9-8 Indian residential school claimants 4500 as of March 31, 2003. By 2003, the 4000 number of claims against the four churches that ran the schools and the Number of Claimants 3500 3000 federal government, which oversaw them, had ballooned to almost 12 000. 2500 The number of claims threatened to 2000 overwhelm the legal system and led 1500 some church parishes to declare bank- 1000 ruptcy. Is this a reasonable burden for individual churches to bear? 500 READING STRATEGY er tia C rta un a O ut io N Ma ia n an N es a t ec W ov ick Br ob ko b ar av i t T co ew sk eb or e um N sw t Yu iti Alb nt un ew ni es a S Sa Qu rit ch ol Before concluding from this sh graph that Alberta residential Br Province or Territory th schools were worse than those or N in other places, ask, Did (You can go to the Perspectives on Globalization website for a Alberta have more residential link to a site containing the full text of the government statement.) schools than other provinces? Following the apology, it was announced that an Aboriginal Healing A quick look back at the map in Foundation would be set up to manage $245 million in funding for Figure 9-2 shows that it did. counselling and other programs for former students. What other questions might you ask about these statistics? In June 2001, the federal government set up a new department to deal with consequences of residential schools. This new department was to help speed up the process of settling the lawsuits that former students had launched against the government and churches. The need to get these claims settled was urgent because many of the claimants were elderly and ill. A law firm that represented 5400 claimants report- ed that of those, 121 had passed away while awaiting compensation. In November 2005, an agreement in principle was reached by the Assembly of First Nations and the federal government. Highlights included the following: improved compensation process for victims of sexual and physical abuse $10 000 lump-sum “common experience” payment for all former students for the loss of language, culture, and family life ▲ $60 million to set up a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Figure 9-9 which would allow those involved to tell their stories Phanuelie Palluq performs a traditional five years’ additional funding for the Aboriginal Healing Foundation Inuit Drum Dance in Ottawa on January 8, Approximately 86 000 former students are eligible for the compen- 1998. The dance was part of a response sation package; by accepting it, they will not give up their right to seek to the federal government’s apology for its assimilation policies, as expressed redress (the righting of past wrongs) for physical and sexual abuse they in residential schools. Other responses may have suffered. However, the agreement does release the government included a criticism that the amount and churches from all other claims relating to the residential schools. of compensation was not enough. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 189 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 190 Explore the Issues 1 Make Connections. Discuss with a partner how committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in the residential school experience could affect part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious one of the following: group, as such: a) Aboriginal languages Killing members of the group; b) parenting skills among former students Causing serious bodily harm or mental harm c) traditional skills and community values in to members of the group; Aboriginal communities Deliberately inflicting on the group condi- d) teen suicide rates in Aboriginal communities tions of life calculated to bring about its 2 Revisit Your Skills. Look for common ground. physical destruction in whole or in part; With a partner, discuss the points of view Imposing measures intended to prevent expressed by former residential school teacher births within the group; Bernice Logan, who believes she acted in good Forcibly transferring children of the group to faith, and former student Flora Merrick, who feels another group. she was victimized by the system. Use some or all a) One opinion holds that residential schools of the “six hats thinking” approach to find were part of an attempt to commit genocide. common ground between the two positions. What parts of the United Nations’ definition of genocide might be cited as justification 3 Plead Your Case. The United Nations adopted for making this claim? Resolution 260 on December 9, 1948. This b) What do you think of this claim? Is it reason- resolution was called the Convention on the able? Write and present a speech to Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of convince people that the charge of attempt- Genocide. Article 2 of the Convention states that: ed genocide against the federal government …genocide means any of the following acts is, or is not, justified. Historical Imperialism and Civil Strife Question for Inquiry How could historical imperialism affect the long-term stability of a region or country? What can you do when you feel you are not being treated fairly? What options do you have? In a democratic society such as ours, you can use the legal system to fight for what you believe are your rights. You can organize a protest, write letters, contact the media, and lobby your Member of Parliament. All of these avenues of redress are the product of our democratic system of government. They have helped make Canada one of the most peaceful countries in the world. What can you do, though, when you feel the system has failed you? If a group in society feels that its rights are not being protected by democratic institutions such as the legal system, members of the 190 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 191 group may feel they have no option but to take matters into their Fast Facts own hands. The result may be civil strife, violence, and confrontation. In this section, you will have an opportunity to examine two such The Mohawk case for ownership situations. of the land is based on the fact that they have been living on it The Oka Crisis since before first contact with Europeans. The land was granted In March 1990, armed members of the Mohawk First Nation (histori- to the Roman Catholic Sulpician cally known as the Kanien’ kehaka at Kanesatake barricaded a road order in 1718 by the King of France and occupied an area of land near the town of Oka, Québec. They for use as a mission to the were protesting plans to build a golf course on the land, which they Haudenosaunee people. However, claimed was once a burial ground and contained a sacred grove of pine the Mohawk claim they never gave trees planted by their ancestors. up their title to it. The plans for the golf course expansion were made without consulting the Mohawk. The land in question was part of a larger piece of land claimed by the Mohawk since 1717. Their claim had been turned down by the federal Office of Native Claims in 1986 on techni- cal grounds, but the Mohawk still maintained it was theirs by right. The mayor of Oka called in the police, and on July 11 a SWAT team launched tear gas and concussion grenades to break up the barri- Figure 9-10 cades. In the chaos that ensued, Corporal Marcel Lemay of the Sûreté The area in Québec affected by the Oka du Québec police force was shot and killed. crisis. In the days and weeks that followed, Aboriginal groups from ▲ across North America joined the Mohawk on the barricades. Mohawk at the nearby Kahnawake reserve blockaded the Mercier Bridge between Ott R. the Island of Montréal and the South Shore aw aR QUEBEC ence ive r suburbs, causing enormous traffic jams. The awr St. L RCMP were brought in but could not control Kanesatake the situation. There were other acts of solidarity Oka Montreal ARIO that took place across Canada. For example, in Mercier Bridge ONT Cold Lake, Alberta, a wooden bridge leading to the Canadian Forces Base was burned by a Kahnawake member of Cold Lake First Nations. Ru Rang de L’Annonciation e de sG On August 14, the premier of Québec, Kanesatake Reserve ab rie Proposed l valier Robert Bourassa, invoked the National Golf Course he Rue C Defence Act, which allowed him to deploy C he min du Milieu the military for the purpose of maintaining Rue St Oka u -Miche Golf ilie l uM law and order. Troops of the Royal 22nd Club R an gd s Pin des Regiment (the Van Doos) arrived within Rue Rue Giro uard E a week. Nine days later,the Mohawk blockading the Mercier Bridge negotiated Rue Lac des des Ang Barricades Deux-Montagnes es a settlement. Oka Source: CBC Archives, accessed at http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-71-99-523/conflict_war/oka/clip4. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 191 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 192 The Mohawk of Kanesatake held out for almost a month longer, but by September 26 they too had had enough. The group destroyed their weapons, ceremonially burned tobacco, and walked out of the pines to the reserve. Many of the warriors were arrested, but none was ever convicted. The Aftermath The golf course expansion was cancelled. The federal government has since purchased several parcels of land for Mohawk use. However, the original land claim ▲ dispute has never been resolved. Figure 9-11 After the crisis, the International Federation of Human Rights criti- This famous photograph came to symbolize cized the methods used by the Sûreté du Québec and the Canadian the tensions between Aboriginal protesters Forces. and the government. What might Private Cloutier and Brad Larocque have been Amnesty International condemned Canada for its alleged abuse of feeling? Mohawk who were arrested and added Canada to its list of human rights violators. Ideas and Opinions Some observers claim that the standoff marked a turning point in the treatment of Aboriginal land claims. The images of Canadian “ We lived through Oka, we lived through Ipperwash, we soldiers exchanging gunfire with a small band of Aboriginal people lived through Burnt Church, and shocked many Canadians and increased public sympathy for resolv- we’re here to stay. We’re not going to ing Aboriginal land claims. go away. We’re going to continue to In June 1991, the government put into effect the First Nations push the government for our issues. Policing Policy, which sought to improve the relationship between … I think there are some people that Aboriginal peoples and police by promoting safe and secure are willing to take drastic measures. communities and providing First Nations peoples across Canada If you've got nothing, you've got nothing to lose. You've got no job, with professional, effective, culturally appropriate police services your land is taken away, you've got that are accountable to the communities they serve. no future … I think the reaction will One year after Oka, partly in response to the crisis, the federal depend on the federal government. —Matthew Coon Come, Grand Chief ” of the Assembly of First Nations, quoted in Sue Bailey, “Aboriginals Will Risk Another Oka for Real Input government established the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples to look at the concerns of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. You read about the findings of this commission in Chapter 8. Other violent protests involving First Nations later took place at Ipperwash, Ontario (1995), Burnt Church, New Brunswick (2000), on Governance, Says Top Chief” and Caledonia, Ontario (2006). (CP); http://knews.knet.ca Follow the links at the Perspectives on Globalization website to find out more about the Oka crisis and its aftermath. What do you think Matthew Coon Come meant by “drastic measures”? In some countries, imperialism has left a legacy of violence that What could be done by citizens to reaches even to the highest levels of government. You can read about avoid a situation where some feel one of these countries in the Investigation that follows. “drastic measures” are necessary? 192 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:14 PM Page 193 Civil Strife in the Democratic Republic of Congo I N V E S TI GATI O N Something to Think About: How can legacies of imperialism affect the nature and stability of a country’s government? An Example: The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a Central African state that was once a colony of Belgium. The DRC is rich in many resources, including gold, copper, diamonds, and cobalt. Yet, it is also one of the poorest countries on the planet. How can this be? Part of the answer lies in the colonial history of the country. The Congo Free State N In 1885, King Leopold II of Belgium acquired the region, which he DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF called the Congo Free State, as his personal possession. Under his CONGO rule, the Congolese people were subjected to a reign of terror that led to the death of between three and 22 million Congolese people. Leopold enslaved the Congolese and forced them to extract rubber and ivory from the region in order to add to his private fortunes. The 0 3000 km massive Congolese death toll at the hands of King Leopold can be broken down into four categories, as shown in Figure 9-13. ▲ Figure 9-12 Disease The Democratic Republic of Congo, in Central Africa Germs killed more Congolese people than bullets did. The biggest killers were smallpox and sleeping sickness. ▲ Starvation, Exhaustion, Exposure Figure 9-13 As news of the killings spread among the Congolese population, hundreds Causes of death among Congolese under King Leopold. How does King Leopold’s of thousands left their villages. Belgian soldiers took their animals and attitude toward the Congolese people burned their homes and crops. Many of those who stayed also went hungry, compare with other examples of colo- because soldiers often raided their banana, manioc, fish, and meat stores. nial exploitation you have read about in previous chapters? Murder If a particular area of the Congo Free State did not produce a set amount of rubber or resisted colonization, Belgian Army soldiers or “sentries” from the rubber companies would often kill everyone they could find. Plummeting Birth Rate The Belgians forced Congolese men to search for rubber in the forests and took many women hostage, which meant that fewer children were being born. Another reason for the low birth rate was that families who were so terrorized simply decided not to have children. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should contemporary society respond to the legacies of historical globalization? 193 Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:15 PM Page 194 Mobutu Sese Seko The country was finally handed over to the Belgian government to administer in 1908, until it gained independence in 1960. Five years of unstable government and rebellions followed. Then, a military coup placed Lieutenant General Joseph Désire Mobutu in power. In the 1970s Mobutu renamed the country Zaire and decreed that all citizens must take African names. He himself became Mobutu Sese Seko. Mobutu ruled Zaire from 1965 to 1997. He was supported during most of this time by the United States and other Western powers. During Mobutu’s years in office, it is alleged that securi- ty forces were responsible for the torture and death of thousands of civilians and members of opposition groups, while he himself ruined the country’s finances by transferring massive ▲ amounts of resources to himself. During more than 30 years in power Figure 9-14 he amassed a personal fortune worth an estimated $4 billion. Many Congolese workers dig at a gold mine. experts consider Mobutu’s rule in Zaire one of the greatest examples The natural resources of the DRC have of kleptocracy—a government so corrupt that no pretense of honesty made it a centre of conflict as corrupt leaders and neighbouring countries try remains. The government spends much of its time and energy collect- to plunder its wealth. How does this ing taxes from the people in order to acquire more money for the conflict and corruption affect the every- ruler. Mobutu’s policies led to an economic crisis in the 1970s, when day lives of DRC citizens? hundreds—perhaps thousands—of citizens were executed by his security forces. Fast Facts The DRC Today The International Rescue Corruption and repression continued after Mobutu was deposed. Committee estimates that at least From 1998 to 2001, the eastern region of Zaire was involved in a 3.8 million Congolese people have brutal war that divided the country into three segments, each been killed since the beginning of controlled by groups backed by neighbouring countries. Rwanda, the war in 1998, mostly from Burundi, and Uganda have all backed various rebel groups, while disease and malnutrition. Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe supported the DRC government. Why do you think some observers Many of these countries have been accused of plundering the rich have called the war in Congo resources of the DRC. “Africa’s World War”? Today, although severe human rights violations, armed conflict, and corruption remain common in many areas, DRC President Joseph Kabila has managed to negotiate a peace accord with neighbouring countries and has begun to institute democratic reforms in the country. 194 Chapter 9: Historical Origins and Contemporary Issues Chap9/Historical 2/17/07 3:15 PM Page 195 1 In your opinion, are the current problems in the DRC directly traceable to historical imperialism? Draw a political cartoon to explain your point of view. 2 Could a situation like this happen in Canada? Why or why not? Explain your views. 3 a) Using the Skill Path from Chapter 1 (pages 7–8), work in a group to brainstorm ways that the global community can play a role in pressur- ing or encouraging countries like Congo to deal with political instability or civil strife resulting from historical globalization. Use six hats thinking to expand and refine your ideas. As a class, put together a list of all the groups’ ideas. b) Discuss how you would feel if other countries tried to pressure Canada to address outstanding issues by these means. Explore the Issues 1 Be a Global Citizen. four points at which the confrontation could a) Go to the Perspectives on Globalization have been avoided or resolved by one side website for links to information about or the other. Edmund Morel. Write a paragraph summa- b) Based on your analysis, what could be done