SOCI 263 Past Notes PDF

Introduction ​ Known as the long 19th century because it is said to have ended with the breakout of ww1. The historical roots of the international world order ​ Also because it overturned many empires. A brief outline o...

Introduction ​ Known as the long 19th century because it is said to have ended with the breakout of ww1. The historical roots of the international world order ​ Also because it overturned many empires. A brief outline of global politics since the emergence of ​ Nationalism is one of the most important movements of the modern times; one of the great the Westphalian inter-state order isms of the last couple hundreds of years. The end of the “long 19th century” and its implications The emergence of nationalism Current issues in IR/global politics First “global” world order ​ The majority of scholars associate the emergence of international order with the rise of The beginnings of the first international world order can colonialism, expansion, discoveries of territories beyond the European continent. be traced to around the end of the 15th century, gained ​ European powers treated the rest of the world as their dominion, up for grabs and momentum in the 17th – 18th centuries exploitation. This order was visibly Eurocentric “the Age of ​ The rise of the west; ascendency of western power and western world that is said to Discovery”, colonial conquest, racism have begun around that age; several processes and ideas converged to ensure the “The Rise of the West ascendency of European imperial power in global politics. First “global” world order ​ Debatable when the “global” aspect came to the floor. A truly global order is rather “The idea of a sort of “global” world order (on a limited recent. scale) emerged in the aftermath of the Thirty Years War ​ Scholars talk about the beginning of the inter-state political order (1630 – 1648) ○​ The time when the idea of a sovereign independent state was established in Principles of sovereignty and non-intervention European politics. The idea of international society of states based on shared rules of ○​ Began in the aftermath of the most violent and brutal military conflicts. conduct and values (international law) ​ The brutality, economic and social costs, prompted the European powers to establish Hugo Grotius The law of war and peace (162 principles to try to avoid this type of conflict from breaking out. ○​ Trying to establish rules for how different people can relate to one another. ​ As a result of the war, a treaty was signed ○​ Two principles became the cornerstone of contemporary politics that is to this day the foundation of politics: Sovereignty and non-intervention. ○​ Sovereignty: every independent state, no matter how small, has the right to control its politics, destiny, the laws, populations, and protect its borders. ○​ Non-intervention: no foreign power should intervene or meddle. ​ After the second world war, we have had genocides happen in multiple places in the world. An idea for foreign parties to intervene if a government is harming its own citizens. But then the rights of sovereignty and non-intervention came up. Eventually a principle of a responsibility to protect was established by the UN: a doctrine that states any government is allowed to intervene if its required for the safety and well-being of civilians. The origins of the modern state ​ The rise of the modern nation state, the emergence of the organism we call the Imperialism nation-state. The establishment of the nation-state as something that is today, Industrialization, capitalism and commerce everywhere no matter where you go. They all resemble one another with a leader, a New ideas tri-part division of power, a constitution, territory, language. ​ Three factors that contribute to the rise of the nation-state ○​ Imperial expansion: expansion of imperial powers starting spain and portugal in the 15th century and gradually other colonizers who end up dividing the globe for themselves ○​ Industrialization: the 18th century onwards ○​ Certain social and political ideas that provided a political and ideological motivation for the rise of the state, nation, and nationalism. Imperialism ​ Two very powerful myths that justified colonial and imperial concepts in claiming the The rise of colonial powers + extraction of resources + lands conquered for the empire. Both are connected slave labor ○​ Discovery: eurocentric in characters. Claimed that the colonized territories The narrative of “discovery” and “no man’s land” have been discovered and therefore can be claimed. Racism, with attempts at “scientific justification ○​ No man's land= terra nullius. The idea that the colonized land is empty, treating them merely as part of nature. We don't think they have any rights, and claim the land is uninhabited. An erased land that we can take for ourselves as imperial colonizers. ​ All of these underpinned with racism, attempts to justify racism with scientific racism. The idea to dehumanize them first in order to do whatever they want with them. Industrial revolution ​ The rise of the modern state wouldn't have been possible without the massive A radical shift from agriculture to industry that occurred transformation of European economies; from agriculture to machine production. in western Europe from around 1760 to around the 1840s and ​ This new factory based economy needed lots of people to work; taken from the beyond. New inventions steam engine + multi-spindle spinning countryside- going to live in rapidly emerging cities to make a new life for themselves. frame ​ One boom in one sector of the economy can be the engine from what other sectors Boom in the textile/cloth production industry factory take off. system Wholesale transformation of society and economy from agricultural production/preordained social structure to economy based on machine and factory production The second industrial revolution ​ Slightly later. Another shift in our capabilities. No longer just about factories, but now “Second” Industrial Revolution – from mid-19th century; about transport and communications. Railways became one of the key means of the global human web thickens railways + the transporting goods and resources. Also the telegraph was invented. invention of the telegraph ○​ Tremendous consequences for politics. New energy sources oil industry + electricity ​ These became widely available commodities. Global trade rises by 10% per annum (Baylis et al. 2017) ​ Volume of trade as a result of the colonial expansion New ideas ​ Several important ideas appeared on the intellectual landscape from the 17th century -​ “Democratic” principles: classical liberalism, individual onwards: important because they underpinned the political revolutions. freedom (John Locke and Adam Smith) : right to civil ​ The individual should be as free as possible to pursue their interest and secure a disobedience/pursuit of happiness: right to self happy fulfilling life. determination! ○​ John Locke: civil disobedience: any citizen has the right to resist an immoral or -​ Enlightenment and rationality (The Age of Reason) oppressive. government. You have a right to disobey the government if they -​ Science and laws of nature more important than tradition try to impose such a law on you. and religion, the notion of the world as rational, with rational ○​ The pursuit of happiness: a purposeful quote from Locke. actors ○​ Both of these rights were later applied to nations, even though they started by  only being applied to individuals. ​ These ideas applied to the enlightenment: where the idea of the enlightenment was to highlight a free individual who can think for themselves and use their reason, and doesn't have to rely on other greater structures (religion, governments) to think for them- for now the world is rational and ordered. ​ Making conclusions based on tested hypotheses. All of these ideas helped support the movements and ideologies that came about in the 19th century. The nation-state would not have been established without these ideas. Political revolutions ​ The ideas influenced what actually happened, and the following is an example of how The American Revolution laws and declarations were influenced. “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” Declaration of Independence, July 4th 1776 Political revolutions ​ Second example: the French had the declaration of the right of man and citizens which The French Revolution of 1789 - 99 included similar ideas; all citizens are equal and free in front of the law, and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen citizens themselves are the key to political power. Sovereignty vested in the people (ie in the nation) of France: ​ Popular sovereignty: it's not the king or queen; they don't own the people or territory; popular sovereignty they rule at the pleasure of the people, because it is the people who are the only The notion of the subject transformed into the citizen source of legitimate power. No power can be legitimate unless it has popular sovereignty. ​ Transformation of subjects into citizens; no longer a subject or an aristocats, but you are a citizen with equal rights to participate. Both of these ideas became the cornerstone of the most important type of movement: Nationalism. -​ The idea that people who live together in one culture have a right to an independent state, and control their rights without oppression. These principles were disseminated globally, and any nation could claim these rights and use them as a weapon against oppression. Consequences ​ Most important consequence= #1. A consequence of this was that empires were seen as denying the ​ All those ideas had one consequence that impacted what happened in Europe later; if right of nations to become proper sovereign states we believe that individuals should be free, and the right to civil disobedience if the law The rise of nationalism/self-determination of nations was oppressive, then those rights were transferred to human collectives; you now cant After the defeat of Napoleon, the idea of “great powers” was made oppress nations, and cultures, and groups. manifest in the “Concert of Europe” ○​ The liberal elites realized the best way to ensure this is to resist your own state. ​ The idea that you are free to decide for themselves: in this case at the collective level. ​ The great European powers were horrified at what happened in france, the defeat on napoleon. Europe in 1815 -​ The year where Napoleon was defeated once, then returned and was defeated again. Recall ​ Two principles underpin the revolutions that started in the 1830s Recall the following: -​ Self-determination -​ Liberty/the right to resist political, economic and social  oppression (by empires) -​ National revolutions against the empire across Europe Basic principles of nationalism ​ Nationalism in this sense is understood as not necessarily something evil, because The world is naturally divided into nations and each they gave the chance for change. nation has its own unique “character” expressed in its ​ The nation is considered a natural community; something that just exists. culture ○​ Every nation has its own culture which is expressed and manifested in its Each nation has the right to control its political and language. Each nation has its own unique character which is comparable to social future and destiny how people have a personality. A nation is a collective person. Each national culture should be protected and allowed ​ The life of the nation consists in its culture; it is what allows it to grow and thrive. to flourish without interference or aggression from Individuals that belong to the nation need to be able to live in their culture; a condition “outsiders” -- which needs its own “political roof” (ie the of a happy life. People have the right to conserve and protect their cultural heritage. state) (Smith 2010) ​ Cultural protection can only be achieved through the government and policies. This is why nationalists believe in full independent statehood; government power that is favourable to the culture they want to protect. Basic principles of nationalism ​ The idea of nationalism had to become a mass phenomenon in order to become a As discussed earlier this week, the ideas of the French critical mass: so the rulers of empires actually listened to their demands. revolution made any social order predicated on birthright or ​ If you can convince 4000 people that you are being oppressed, then change is more divine right untenable likely to be mobilized. The role of national elites as “discoverers” of national ​ So nationalist elites, intellectuals, poets, and writers took it upon themselves to culture and drivers of national (anti-imperialist) movements awaken the masses. The folk culture as a “reservoir” of national traits/character ​ Schools were often the places for cultural reservation: there is always a vision of (Miroslav Hroch 1985) nation and nation history that is being propagated to the children. A way of disseminating that culture. Springtime of Nations ​ All of these ideas eventually led to a wave of liberal, nationalist revolutions all over A series of revolutionary upheavals in Europe from early Europe from 1830-1949. 1848 to late 1849; Alliance of the “middle classes”, students ​ The spring-time of nations firmly planted the ideas of nationalism on the political stage; and workers they established the principles of nationalism as a long-standing feature of european Revolutions, liberal and democratic in nature, were soon politics. suppressed ​ Historians talk about the springtime of nations as being a failure, but in the long run BUT these revolutions are successful because they made sure that nationalism stayed on Awakened national identities the scene for the long haul Springtime of Nations ​ We need to keep in mind the context of industrialization, urbanization, city growth, and Typically said to have started in 1848, however, it was elementary education, rise of the modern state, : we need to keep that context in mind preceded, for example, by political upheaval in 1830s, first when we think about how the revolutions happened: they would not have been able to in France and Belgium, and subsequently in Russian- happen without those rising cities, if the feudal structured hadnt been broken then controlled Poland those revolutions would not have thrived. It was made possible both by the deep socio-economic transformations associated with rapid urbanization that we discussed earlier this week, and facilitated by the liberal ideals of the French Revolution: popular sovereignty and self determination, as well as ideas of Romantic nationalism. Springtime of Nations What were the revolutions demanding? Demands for universal suffrage, economic rights for ​ Important to remember that this was a time in Europe where things were already workers, freedom of the press, cultural and linguistic volatile: socially and economically. Things weren't going well economically; so when autonomy, and representation and voice in political this was combined with specific political opportunities, all of that became a fuse matters waiting to be lit. Revolts and rioting in all major European capitals: Paris, ​ The revolts themselves started in Italy, then spread to Paris, Berlin, and Vienna. Berlin and Vienna Revolutions broke out in France, Italy (Sicily, Sardinia and Rome), Hungary, Prussia (Germany) and the Netherlands (among others) Springtime of Nations. Short-term VIDEO; consequences -​ Shows the importance of intellectual ideas, rhetoric, and ideologies and powerful tools The mapping of the Springtime of Nations to affect politics, and absolutely essential for the establishment of nationalism. Europe ablaze: the 1848 Revolutions Springtime of Nations. Short-term ​ Revolutions were all eventually suppressed, and unsuccessful. consequences ​ 3 positive things out of revolutions In general, the 1848 revolutions were unsuccessful as they ○​ 1 were eventually suppressed (often ruthlessly, as in Hungary); in ○​ 2 Prussia (Germany), King Frederick-William IV reneged on his promises In the long run, the idea of the nation became treated as legitimate; the idea that nations The establishment of the Second Republic and universal male should be free and national cultures should be left to flourish. suffrage in France The unification of Italy (1861-62); The establishment (in 1867) of Austria-Hungary with the Hungarians on an equal footing with the Austrians, with their autonomy and constitution recognized by the Habsburg court in Vienna The end of the old world order 1914 - ​ That world order lasted for some more time, but was effectively doomed by the late 1918 19th century, and then ended by WW1. Break up of old Austro-Hungarian and German empires, last Habsburg emperor, Charles, exiled to Madera; German emperor leaves for the Netherlands and the Weimer Republic is established in 1919 Russian empire soon to be overthrown by Bolsheviks (Communists) (1917); The last “great empire” – Ottoman Turkey – fell in 1922 and was replaced by a secular republic New independent states appear on the map of Europe Europe in the aftermath of the Great ​ The oriigns of international relations as an academic discipline emerged. \ War ​ League of nations: to foster peace and cooperation among the nations Reflecting on the need to secure long-lasting peace and ○​ Problem: was largely ineffective, weak, had no powers to compel the state to to prevent another great war : emergence of academic listen. International Relations (IR) 1919 – League of Nations created with the purpose of preventing conflict and promoting international peace Europe in the aftermath of the Great ​ It failed to prevent another war War ​ Also failed to prevent the appearance of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. The League, however, was weak and inefficient It failed to prevent expansionist and aggressive ideologies, such as Fascism, Nazism, and Communism (Bolshevism) Ultimately, it failed to prevent another World War UN as the successor of the League ​ After WW2, the US decided to participate in the League replacement: the United Nations Cold War rivalries prevented the UN from operating effectively A bipolar world order NATO v the Soviet bloc) established Decolonisation ​ The fact that the ideas gradually spread over the world. De-colonisation led to a broader adoption of “Westphalian- ​ The spread of the idea of sovereign nationalism and right to popular sovereignty for derived” ideas of sovereignty every nation around the world. This was the positive outcome Indigenous elites defeated the West with its own weapon – ​ Nationalism is also the reason decolonisation was defeated with its own weapon. nationalism; the proliferation of the “Westphalian nation- state” across the globe The collapse of the Soviet Union also meant the collapse of a strong competing conception of international society Current issues on the international stage ​ Globalization is eroding the nation and its influence. Globalization itself is eroding traditional identities The post-cold war order has produced several collapsed, failing or fragmenting states Today the United States military power overwhelmingly dominates, creating a “unipolar moment” in history. (Baylis et al, 2017) Current issues on the international stage Resurgence of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in Oct 2023 Continuing war in Ukraine following Russian invasion in February 2022 Economic crises instability of economies, market crises, public debt Resurgence of radical nationalism and populism in established democracies Current issues on the international stage The US hegemony is being challenged by strong contenders such as Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRIC countries), and Turkey (also South Africa BRICS) Sovereignty-based world order is also challenged by global issues requiring international cooperation poverty, environmental degradation, international organized crime s et al, 2017)