International Relations Notes 2020 PDF

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: KEY CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW CHAPTER 1-5  GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION: A CONTESTED CONCEPT - A “slippery”, overused and controversial concept? (versus “internalisa...

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: KEY CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW CHAPTER 1-5  GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION: A CONTESTED CONCEPT - A “slippery”, overused and controversial concept? (versus “internalisation”) - Fundamental meaning: widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness and interdependence - How can it be usefully conceptualised and defined? - How is it manifested today? - What is the political fallout of globalization? (i.e. How is it disruptive?) TRADE AS A MAJOR DRIVER - In any given day, more than $4 trillion flows across the world’s foreign exchange markets - Transnational corporations account for more than a quarter of world output, and two thirds of world trade - No national economy and government can insulate itself from the effects of turmoil in global markets (e.g. global economic crisis of 2008) EVIDENCE OF GLOBALIZATION - Not only states matter! - More than 45 000 international NGOs work across the globe - Communication now makes it possible to connect like-minded people regardless of distance - Global transport and migration has also increased as a result - There is a growing recognition of global problems that need global solutions CONCEPTUALISING GLOBALIZATION - Stretching of social, political and economic activities to have a direct or indirect impact on all regions of the worldwide - Intensification/growing magnitude of global interconnectedness in almost all spheres of social existence - Accelerating pace of global interactions and processes due to the evolution of worldwide systems of transport and communications - A deepening integration and interdependence of local and global events - Globalization dissolves the significance of national borders and boundaries into separate political entities (nations/states) - It highlights the world as a shared social space - Central aspects of human affairs are increasingly organised on a transnational or global scale - There is an ongoing process of time-space compression and deterritorialization  GLOBALIZATION – A DEFINITION “a historical process involving a fundamental shift or transformation in the spatial scale of human social organisation that links distant communities and expands the reach of power relations across regions and continents” THE SCEPTICAL VIEW OF GLOBALIZATION - Geopolitics, regionalisation and nationalism are strong counter-forces - A dominant share of “globalization” is in fact “OECD-isation”, as these countries are linked to a much higher degree than others - Globalization is in fact the visible face of Western capitalism and US hegemony - Economic shocks may very well derail globalization processes INTERPRETING GLOBALIZATION - The process is asymmetrical/uneven which will engender inequalities - Globalization is institutionalised, through new infrastructures of control and communication (including IGOs such as the WTO, and transnational corporations) GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS - Long established Westphalian principles (sovereignty, autonomy & territoriality) are challenged as states are embedded in complex webs of multilateral and transnational decision-making - A global governance complex thus exists and is growing in importance - This has led to an increased diversity in global political concerns, tackled by ever more diverse actors and institutions - In this “post-Westphalian order”, non-state actors have thus gained relative influence - NGOs, transnational networks, advocacy networks and citizen networks are increasingly able to exercise power across national boundaries - Alongside the global governance complex, an embryonic transnational civil society is taking shape - Lack of formal accountability and resource inequalities are possible risk elements in such a diverse system OPPOSING OPINIONS: IS GLOBALIZATION A SOURCE OF ORDER OR DISORDER IN WORLD POLITICS? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Promotes: interdependence, prosperity, Globalization increases state rivalry human security, diffusion of democratic values Globalization reduces the potential for conflict Premised on the promotion of western/liberal rather than different global values – which is met with violent backlashes Globalization increases potential for conflict  THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER CHAPTER TWO THE IDEA OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY - Somewhere between a struggle of all against all and a world government - Any notion of an international society must refer to some level of common rules and practice - The term is commonly used to denote the emergence of the European state system with its principles of sovereign equality and non-intervention INTERNATIONAL ORDER - Commonly understood as regularised practices of exchange among separate political units that recognise each other to be independent - Fundamental features include: *a global economy *a global system of states *a global circulation of ideas OPPOSING OPINIONS: WAS THE RISE OF THE WEST THE REST RESULT OF ITS OWN STRENGTHS ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Western institutions were premised on Materials crucial for Western rise originated representative negotiation from outside its territory This led to an increase in exchange of ideas/ Western rise is fundamentally premised on products imperialism in Africa, Asia and the Americas Economic policies (e.g. double entry Global economic inequalities imposed by bookkeeping; comparable innovations) Western powers are what formed the basis allowed for depersonalised credit – the of its global rise hallmark of commercial capitalism Western powers profited from a geography To speak of ‘the rise of the West’ is to speak which made coal and iron available of a selective narrative; between 1600-1800, India and China were so advanced that it was the West which was considered ‘backward’ THE EVOLUTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY - The Peace of Westphalia is considered the key event ushering in a contemporary international system - The peace represents the first formal acceptance of sovereign equality for a large number of states - The French revolution linked sovereignty to nations rather than to rulers, engendering the idea of “national self-determination” - A consequence of this was that empires were seen as denying the right of nations to become proper sovereign states - After the defeat of Napoleon, the idea of “great powers” was made manifest in the “Concert of Europe” - The Concert of Europe and the idea of a sort of joint hegemony by the great powers was brought to an end after the end of WW1 - The League of Nations was to embody the principle of collective security, but in fact still relied on a balance of power structure – in a time when there was a marked inbalance of power - After WW2, the US decided to participate in the League replacement: the United Nations - Bretton Woods Institutions: IBRD, IMF, GATT - Cold War rivalries prevented the UN from operating effectively - De-colonisation led to a broader adoption of “Westphalian-derived” ideas of sovereignty - The collapse of the Soviet Union also meant the collapse of a strong competing conception of international society PROBLEMS OF GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY - Globalization itself is eroding traditional identities - The post-cold war order has produced several collapsed, failing or fragmenting states - Today the United States military power overwhelmingly dominates, creating a “unipolar moment” in history - This moment, and its structural implications, is challenged by economic trends - The shared values that evolved in European societies and that became the basis for the conceptualisation of international society are challenged by competing models - Issues such as climate change and poverty are hard to accommodate within a sovereignty-based international society - In the long run: can an international society founded on the principle of sovereignty endure?  INTERNATIONAL HISTORY: 1990-1999 CHAPTER THREE MODERN TOTAL WAR 1 - The nature of this war (length, geographic reach, associated costs and casualties) changed the very perception of what war was IR as field of study - In the Versailles Peace Treaty were lodged the seeds of a more serious conflict still to come, as victor unity was lacking, and new borders were contested - A “side effect” was the creation of the USSR MODERN TOTAL WAR 2 - German revanchism and the Great Depression destabilised the already weak post WW1 world order - Liberal democracy was in many places pushed back by communism, Nazism and fascism (and attendant Ideological preferences) - Arms development rendered many existing defensive military strategies obsolete RISE AND FALL OF JAPAN - Japanese aggression against Manchuria in 1931 was met by ineffective international responses (an example of League of Nations ineffectiveness) - Japan invades China in 1937 - US sanctions against Japan precipitated the surprise Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 - Japan was defeated in 1945, and the world entered the nuclear age OPPOSING OPINIONS: WAS THE USE OF THE ATOMIC BOMBS AGAINST HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI JUSTIFIED? ADVOCATE OPPONENT It was decisive in bring about Japanese The war was already won: peace- surrender and ending the Pacific wars negotiations between Japan and Moscow Many casualties were avoided in this way Targeting cities was morally wrong Other military options could not have ended Other military options had not been the war as swiftly exhausted The event has served to The event fuelled both the cold war and strengthen nuclear taboo nuclear proliferation END OF EMPIRE - Decolonisation after WW2 was influenced by many factors including attitude of the colonial power; the ideology and strategy of anti-imperialist forces; and the role of external powers - Between 1947 and 1980, 49 British territories were granted independence (mostly peacefully) - France tried harder to hold on to colonial (or “national” in the case of Algeria) territories ONSET OF THE COLD WAR (1945 – 1953) - The end of WW2 was swiftly followed by a “cold war” between the Western allies and the Soviet Union and its allies - The Marshall plan, though notionally open to all European countries, aided economic recovery in Western Europe, and strengthened ties with the US - The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain Soviet expansion (George Kennan) COLD WAR - NATO was established in 1949 - A founding principle was that an attack on one NATO member was to be considered an attack on all - The rearmament of West Germany in 1954 precipitated the creation of the Warsaw Pact, and further military build-ups - A slight thawing of relations occurred in the late 1950s - Crises in (particularly) Berlin and Cuba led to the possibility of direct military confrontation - 1969-1979: rise and fall of détente SALT I (1972) & II (1979) - 1979-1986: (second cold war) - 1985: Mikhail Gorbacev becomes Premier *glasnost (openness) *perestroika (restructuring) - Revision of the Brezhnev Doctrine restores sovereignty in many USSR nations - Relations between East and West then varied until Gorbachev’s mid 1980s rise, marking the end of the hardline Brezhnev doctrine (keeping a stern Soviet eye on allied countries), and the eventual fall of the Soviet Union itself CASE STUDY: CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS - October 1962: U.S. discovered that Soviets were secretly deploying nuclear missiles in Cuba - Kennedy responded with naval blockade - The crisis was resolved 6 days after U.S. imposing of the blockade - The risk of inadvertent nuclear war through misperception, the actions of subordinates and organisational failures was much greater than believed at the time - The crisis led to progress made towards the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963  FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW GLOBAL ERA? CHAPTER FOUR THE COLD WAR – SOME CHARACTERISTICS 1944 – 1989 - Concerned: superpowers (USA; USSR) - Emergent protectorates caused a global ideological divide into a communist ‘East’ and a capitalist ‘West’ - Nuclear arms race led to a security dilemma among the two superpowers - The attendant reduction or concentration of conflicts created its own form of stability - However, few envisioned the end of the bipolar system (and thus the end of the Cold War) THE US AND THE UNIPOLAR MOMENT - The collapse of the Soviet Union left the United States the overwhelmingly dominant force in the world – a “hyperpower” - Caused important US foreign policy changes from isolationism to global engagement - This was consolidated by the Clinton administration: *concentrated on economic engagement and leverage *pushed hard for NATO enlargement AFTER THE SOVIET UNION - The Soviet Union denoted a select club of nations, controlled by Russia - Despite evident power and influence it disappeared at the end of the cold war - Consequential difficulties: *displacement of ethnic/national Russians, who were now located outside their home country. *Russia’s relationship to former Soviet states: found it hard to think of them in anything but imperial terms *Change in regional economics from a centralised system to Western-style privatisation: caused to severe economic shocks EUROPE: RISE AND DECLINE? - The new united Europe, with its open borders, democratic institutions and reduced external threats appeared to have a lot to look forward to - Ideas were mooted to set up specific European security arrangements - Dividing lines included the view of the role of the state and the reach and depth of the EU - Europe: an economic and soft power giant, but a military dwarf? - The 2008 economic crisis is considered Europe’s most serious since 1945 - Most notably, it has given rise to much Euroscepticism over the past years (e.g. Brexit, 2016) A NEW ASIAN CENTURY? - In the decades after WW2, the continent was plagued by cold war/super-power-led conflicts - Post-Cold War Asia has been relatively stable and peaceful - In spite of some bleak predictions the region underwent rapid economic developments (in part helped by cheap US security arrangements) - China is the main economic engine, but its ascent has also increased regional tension A NEW GLOBAL SOUTH - The Third World affected and was very much affected by, cold war dynamics - The “Third World” as a political project was intended to bring ‘real’ independence from the West - In many cases it was brought down by corruption and instability. - The imposition of Western-style structural reforms and debt servicing has left both burdens and a lingering resentment - The new global South is characterised by major reforms and the rejoining of world markets FROM 9/11 - If the end of the cold war marked a great turning point in modern international relations, 9/11 marked another - The new sort of terrorist threat meant that old defence methods were less relevant - One US response was nevertheless a sharp militarisation of foreign policy – and the notion that the status quo (particularly in the Middle East) was not sacrosanct - These policy reforms proved largely counter-productive ARAB SPRING - In the early 2010s peoples in the Middle East began to throw off autocratic rulers - Turned increasingly bloody with NATO‘s intervention in Libya > destabilising power vacuum - One of the worst example is perhaps Syria - By 2016 the conflict here resulted in: *over half its population to be displaced *3 million. Syrian refugees abroad *at least 400,000 deaths - The emergence of the terrorist group ‘Islamic State’ is largely attributed to the unstable political situation in post-Arab Spring Syria/Iraq OBAMA AND THE WORLD - Obama’s election can be regarded a consequence of two international events *increasingly unpopular war in Iraq *severe economic crisis in 2008 - Obama turned out to be a more cautious foreign policy leader, compared to Bush: Obama appears to have abandoned the idea that the world was in fact unipolar - Nonetheless many of Obama’s policies continue to portray the USA as a dominant power: *warned both Syria and Iran not to press on with distasteful policies *has dramatically increased the use of drones  RISING POWERS AND THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER CHAPTER 5 THE POST-COLD WAR ORDER Three different liberal stories about the post-cold war world - A focus on non-state institutions and the cooperative logics of institutions - The Kantian idea of the gradual diffusion of liberal values resulting from ever tighter interdependence and a move towards global governance - Unipolarity: the US would be accepted as a ‘system owner’, and would exercise self- restraint in exchange for procedural legitimacy General liberal thoughts about the new era - The ‘liberal Greater West’ had triumphed and was bound to increase its global reach: *Competing systems would gradually become part of the US-led ‘Western’ order *Soft power would grow in importance *Liberal ascendancy was more or less inevitable - Certain neo-realists argued that a US-led order was indeed inevitable, but that was because US power was so great that the idea of a balance of power had lost all meaning - Critical political economists also foresaw stability, but because neo-liberal norms were disseminated through US-dominated institutions - Neo-Marxists pointed to a de-territorialized global capitalist dynamic, marked by inequality, instability and new patterns of stratification THE US ORDER UNDER CHALLENGE - 9/11 challenged existing notions of unilateral power and its usefulness - Human rights abuses by US forces (and others) eroded Western claims of moral superiority - Large developing countries increased their diplomatic activism, and began to cooperate to push their own agendas – and in some cases resist ‘globalization’ - This was present in both economic and political terms illustrated e.g. by BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and IBSA (India, Brazil and SA) - Unipolarity saw large-scale contestation. CASE STUDY 1: THE BRICS - ‘BRICs’ is an acronym that refers to Brazil, Russia, India and China - These countries have been seen as key emerging market economies because of their rising share of the world economy - China and India will arise as principle suppliers of manufactured goods and services, while Russia and Brazil will be dominant suppliers of raw materials - BRICS can also be read as a diplomatic grouping. Their influence would profoundly alter the distribution of power in the world CASE STUDY 2: BRAZIL - Notion of Brazil as rising power emerged under President Luis Ignacio Lula - Brazil to challenge unipolarity and strive toward more balanced multipolar world order: *reassert national autonomy *form coalitions with other developing states *increase bargaining power - Today Brazil faces deep economic and political challenges *lack of reforms during boom years (early 2000s) *structural weakness in the attempt to climb the global power ladder *unstable and rapidly changing global financial markets (esp. after 2008-crisis) WHAT IS SHIFTING POWER? If power is shifting: where is it shifting to? Two different perspectives: (1) to major emerging states as part of the on-going dynamic of rise/fall of Great Powers (2) more general diffusion of power *multiplicity of actors who demand to be heard *diffusion of ideas/values (questions of social, economic and political organisation) POWER FOR WHAT? - Lists of ‘power resources’ are not enough if we want to understand how different kinds of power shift from one society to another - What must be asked is: *Why is the shift in power important? *What/who is it affecting? *How do the countries that power is shifting towards matter politically/geopolitically? WHAT IS POWER? What is power? - Essentially contested concept Relational power: capacity to impose your will on others but resist attempts in the reverse Institutional power: ability to control the agenda (what is left out of discussions?) Structural power: material and discursive conditions for action - Hard (military) vs. soft (discursive/ economic/social) power WESTPHALIAN – POST-WESTPHALIAN? - Globalization has been presented as a threat to Westphalian logics, but… - The focus on power shifts between different states (rather than to, say, firms), national security, regional security arrangements and nationalism point to the continuing relevance of nation states - Certain collective problems (climate change) have strong post-Westphalian characteristics OPPOSING OPINIONS: ARE TODAY’S RISING POWERS POWERFUL ENOUGH TO AFFECT INTERNATIONAL ORDER? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS US dominance will not remain uncontested US dominance will remain uncontested international society is now constituted by a US dominance of military technology will wider range of states and societies with the ensure its global hegemony capacities to mobilize and express a multiplicity of interests and values. Powers play within functional institutions US economic strength ensures its ability to that deal with pressing global challenges remain the most central actor in determining (management of the global economy, the agenda of international organisations climate change, nuclear proliferation, etc.) Rising powers (e.g. BRICS) are faced with internal divisions that makes counter- balance to US hegemony unlikely THEORETICAL APPROACHES: CHAPTER 6-8, 10-11  REALISM CHAPTER SIX THE TIMELESS WISDOM OF REALISM - Realism is the dominant tradition in the study of international relations. - Post-WW2 realism rests on an older, classical tradition of thought, tracing its roots back to philosophers such as Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes and Rousseau. - This tradition informs the ‘statesman what he must do to preserve the health and strength of the State’ – the very raison d’état (reason of state). RASION D’ETAT - The group, rather than the individual, is the fundamental unit of analysis – units have changed from polis to sovereign state, but the realist logics remain similar. - Thus, the state is the main actor in international relations. - Its ultimate goal is to ensure its own survival - Outside its own borders, the state (or other equivalent unit) operates in a state of anarchy (absence of higher authority) > uncertainty, lack of safety. - Given that states inhabit this perilous place, they must, and do, pursue power. - Viewed thus, ethics and ideas of universal morality can actively hinder state leaders from making sure that the state will survive. - Instead, what is advocated is a pursuit of states’ self-interests. - From this emerge realism’s ‘three Ss’: statism, survival, and self-help, which are present in all variants of realist thought. - Self-help may lead to a security dilemma as all react to others’ quest for more power. POWER - Power is survival in these conditions. - Power will not be ‘granted’ – each state must independently try to gain/take it. - Power is relational: it is never exercised in a vacuum, but always in relation to another entity. - Power is relative to the capabilities of others. - A balance of power will check the power dominance of a (coalition of) hegemonic state(s) and so should actively be sought. A TAXONOMY (CLASSIFICATION) OF REALISMS Classical Realism - CLASSICAL realism begins with Thucydides’ representation of power politics as a law of human nature. - Viewing power struggle as a biological imperative that stems from a universal need to survive, which is above all other considerations and obligations. - This relates to Hobbes’ state of nature: the condition resembles a state of war of every man against every man. - Machiavelli, therefore, argued that one had to rule on the basis of what human nature is really like, rather than on an idealised version of how it ought to be. - What is needed, Rousseau suggested, is therefore a social contract. Structural Realism - STRUCTURAL realists (most notably Kenneth Waltz) argue that it is not human nature but the anarchical system itself that fosters fear and insecurity. - The distribution of power is the key variable when trying to understand matters of war and peace, alliance politics, etc. - Anarchy promotes or provokes self-help, meaning that states will try to maximise their security and relative power positions. - In this sense, the units of the international system are regarded functionally similar sovereign states. - However, rank-ordering of states according to capabilities becomes important to understand the dynamics of the system. - Defensive realism refers to states’ maximization of security. *Here, a bipolar world as the most stable system. - Offensive realism refers to states’ maximization of power. *It identifies a situation where a global hegemon dominates the international system as the ideal. - Neoclassical realists think that structural realism is incomplete. - What is needed is better accounts of unit-level variables, such as how power is perceived, and how leadership is exercised. - Following this line, neoclassical realists argue that states differ both in interests and their ability to extract resources. - Domestic politics will affect what is possible to accomplish on the international arena. CRITICISM OF REALISM - The peaceful conclusion of the cold war caught many realists off guard. - Regional integration, humanitarian intervention, the growing importance of non-state actors etc. did not seem to fit a realism world view. - Intra-state wars are sometimes hard to explain in realism terms. CASE STUDY: THUCYDIDES’ MELIAN DIALOGUE - Refers to the Peleponnesian War of ancient Greece, between Athens and Sparta. - Athenians and Melians differ in their approach to international relations: - Athenians emphasise the logic of power politics: “the strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept.” - Melians emphasise the rule of justice, alliance-formation and deity: “you should not destroy a principle that is to the general good of all men – namely that in the case of all who fall into danger there should be such a thing as fair playing and just dealing…” CASE STUDY: STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS WITH ‘FRIENDLY’ DICTATORS - Successive American administrations have taken the view that stability in the Middle East is more likely to be achieved by propping up Egyptian dictatorships. - The fundamental idea is that it is better to maintain a moderate friendly autocrat, than to risk an unfriendly revolutionary regime. - In the Egyptian case, the policy proved mutually beneficial until the time of the Arab Spring.  LIBERALISM CHAPTER SEVEN LIBERALISM AND REALISM - If realism is the dominant theory of international relations, liberalism has a strong claim to be the historical alternative. - Origins lie in academic idealism of post WWI era. - After WWII as well as after the end of the cold war, liberal sentiments briefly re-appeared in international politics. - Subsequent developments did in each case bring realism back in vogue. FOUR FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF LIBERALISM - Individuals are citizens, who are judicially equal and possess certain basic rights. - Any legislative assembly possesses only the authority that the people has invested in it – and their rights must not be abused. - The individual has the right to own property including productive forces. - For the most part, the market is the most effective system of economic exchange. LIBERALISM AND IR: CONFLICT - States, like people, have different characteristics (such as being more or less war-prone); states’ identity determine their outward orientation. - States, too, have ‘natural’ rights: e.g. nonintervention, but collective action may trump these rights. - Anarchy is an IR system trait, but not the cause of conflict; imperialism, the balance of power, or undemocratic regimes are more to blame LIBERALISM AND IR: MAINTAINING PEACE - Collective security, and/or commerce, and/or a world government might remedy the problem - Common legal frameworks, and increased trade have been identified as pacifying influences – in part because they underline a natural harmony of interests - Many liberalists have come to embrace the idea that peace has to be constructed KANTIAN LIBERALISM AND IR - Kant claimed that liberal states are inherently pacifist in their international relations with other liberal states (a.k.a. democratic peace) - Outlined in his ‘Perpetual Peace’ three definitive articles express this: a) Republicanism (citizens do not choose to engage in war) b) Federation of Free States (league to prevent wars) c) Universal Community (to ensure cosmopolitan rights) LIBERALISM AND IR: COSMOPOLITANISM AND COMMUNITY - One of greatest advocates for international organisation was Woodrow Wilson. - Establishment of League of Nations in his ‘Fourteen Points’ (post-WWI): *attempt to realise a system of collective security (meaning that every actor had a stake in the security of everyone else). - The failure of the League contrasted rhetorical idealism and reaffirmed realpolitik. - The replacement, the UN, moderated collective security. LIBERALISM AND IR: INTERDEPENDENCE - Spreading collaboration processes leads to gradually deeper system embeddedness and integration as the costs of withdrawing increase - Transnational actors are beginning to challenge the dominance of sovereign states - More generally, interdependence erodes the idea of state autonomy - These ideas have been criticized by neo-realists as being fanciful CASE STUDY: 1990-1991 GULF WAR AND COLLECTIVE SECURITY 2 August 1990: Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. International response: a) UN resolutions calling for Iraq to withdraw unconditionally. b) Economic sanctions. c) Operation ‘Desert Storm’: US-led coalition of international armed forces crushed Iraqi resistance within six weeks (16 Jan 1990 – 28 Feb 1991). - Revived UN doctrine of collective security. - Critics questioned underlying motivations for war; manner in which it was fought (US- dominance). CHALLENGES CONFRONTING LIBERALISM - Liberalism is now in question in theory and in practice. Main criticisms include: *Crises in the multilateral institutions. *Ongoing violence in the Middle East, Northern Africa, Ukraine. *Unrest triggered by the global financial crisis. - Demonstrated that cooperation is harder to achieve and sustain than Liberalists had assumed. - American “benevolent hegemony” is in decline: notion of global democracy promotion and international institutions have increasingly come to be viewed as a form of neo- imperialism. OPPOSING OPINIONS: IS DEMOCRACY A BETTER SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT AND SHOULD IT BE PROMOTED BY PEACEFUL AND FORCEFUL MEANS ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Democracies do not go to war with one Democracies are highly war-prone in another relation to illiberal states Democratic governance assures civil Democratic nations are on decline in recent liberties and human rights constitutionally years: economic deficit and public mistrust in governments It is the most sustainable form of Global democratic peace-building has led to development for all those involved form of nero-imperialism, which serves the interest of leading Western States  MARXISM CHAPTER EIGHT MARXISM AND WORLD POLITICS: KEY ELEMENTS - Despite some perceived failure in socialist politics of the 20th Cent., Marxists thinking is considered to make crucial analytic contributions to IR theorising: *Holistic analysis: the social world should be analysed as a totality *Historical Materialism: Processes of historical change are a reflection of the economic development of society – specifically of tensions between the means of production and relations of production - Therefore, international events are structurally informed by global capitalism. THE BASE-SUPERSTRUCTURE MODEL MARXISM AND WORLD POLITICS: KEY ELEMENTS - Class struggle is a key determinant in historical developments: “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle” (Communist Manifesto). - Analysts should not be detached and neutral, but have a moral obligation to try to make things better. - The concept of emancipation is key to any theorising of the social. FROM IMPERIALISM TO WORLD-SYSTEMS THEORY - Lenin claimed that modern capitalism had led to a two-tier system, with a dominant core exploiting a less developed periphery. - This meant that there was no longer an automatic harmony of interests between all workers, as posited by Marx (exploited periphery workers could ‘subsidise’ workers in the core) - World systems theory adds the notion of a semi-periphery as a stabilising factor in the political structure of the world system. - The exploitative relationship that links these three zones ensures that ‘the rich get richer while the poor become poorer’ (the Matthew Principle). WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY: A MODEL GRAMSCIANISM - Why had it had proved so difficult to promote revolution in Western Europe? - The system appeared in part propped up not only by coercion but by consent - Consent is created by the hegemony of the ruling class in society – meaning that the superstructure is more important than some Marxists believe - Gramsci concluded that the hegemonic structure thus needed to be challenged through a counter-hegemonic struggle, where a new historic bloc is constructed ANALYSIS OF ‘WORLD ORDER’ ACCORDING TO ROBERT COX Cox distinguishes: *problem-solving theory (that assumes knowledge to be objective and timeless) *critical theory (that acknowledges that ‘theory is always for someone and for some purpose’ where facts and values are not distinct) - Cox applies the notion of hegemony to theory, where it is a tool to create consent for the existing order - However critical theory can also contribute to emancipation by demonstrating transformative processes. - In this sense capitalism can be exposed as an inherently contradictory and therefore unstable system CRITICAL THEORY - Although critical theory finds its origins in Marxist thinking (oppression > political action > emancipation), there is no coherent school of though, many different strands - Less focus on the economic base, more concern with superstructure (structure of oppression inherent in culture and society). - Questions the working class as a transformative power, as it seems to have been absorbed into the system - Tries better to grasp and define ‘emancipation’ NEW MARXISM - Thinkers who have derived their ideas more directly from Marx and are primarily concerned with historical materialism. - Rosenberg: Trotskian thought (uneven and combined development): rather than a single path of economic and political development, this differs across eras and regions, where the international context is a crucial determinant. - ‘Globalization theory’ as a new strand of thought is unproductive – it would be more useful to analyse globalization using Marxist notions CASE STUDY 1: OCCUPY! - Marx and his followers have argued that capitalism will be subject to recurrent crises - The 2008 financial turmoil can be thought of as one such crisis - Government austerity programmes have resulted in widespread resistance - The Occupy movement has highlighted a growing disparity between the richest and the poorest in society - The movement has been affected in highlighting the inequalities of the capitalist system - It has been less successful in advocating an alternative to the global capitalist system - Occupy seems to support the reform of capitalism – but not the Marxist solution: the overthrow of capitalism itself CASE STUDY 2: NEOLIBERALISM AND THE DEVELOPING WORLD - Neoliberalism has emerged over the past 30 years. - Its main economic policies include: *promotion of free trade *reduction of state spending *currency devaluation *privatisation of state-owned industries *undermining of organised labour - Many view neoliberalism to cause exploitative global relationships, where the gap between the richest and the poorest is widened. OPPOSING OPINIONS: IS THE GLOBAL ECONOMY THE PRIME DETERMINANT OF THE CHARACTER OF GLOBAL POLITICS? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS States‘ economic power is crucial in The balance of power is the most crucial determining their military capabilities and determining factor of states‘ behaviour in therefore status and action in the the international order international system. Economic turmoil leads to international Democratic Peace Theory; democracy- political turmoil promotion is the most ample way to achieve global stability. Capitalist self-interests informs states and Not all state-behavior is informed by their elites. economic self-interest; some actions are genuinely altruistic  POST-COLONIALISM CHAPTER TEN POST-COLONIAL THINKING AND IR - Post-colonialism entered the field of international relations in the 1990s - Its introduction relates to the failure of the field to take seriously the notion of peoples’ power and thus the failure to predict some major 20th century events. - The idea that nation-states are the key actors in IR came under contestation - Post-colonialism and other critical approaches highlighted the many other locations and relations that were relevant to international events. FORMER COLONIES AND IR - The traditional theories of IR focus has neglected relations of dominance and subordination in the world - Colonial rule and later decolonisation challenges proved problematic to the analysis, using existing IR theories - Implicitly, the worldview of IR was European and North American. - IR scope needed to be somehow broadened to include groups, cultures, movements, knowledges, locations and relations that would encompass the peoples of former colonies - From the end of WWII, much IR was informed by decolonisation. - Former colonies began fundamentally shaping international relations: *1955: the Bandung Conference *1960: OPEC *1964: The Group of 77 (G77) *1966: The Tricontinental Conference *1970s: New International Economic Order (NIEO) - The empirical developments were mirrored by the academic field post-colonialism. - The founding works are often considered to be: *Franz Fanon (1952): Black Skin, White Masks; *Fanon (1963): The Wretched of the Earth - There was a notable lack of correspondence between standard IR terminology, categories and theories and third world realities; in many regards this persists today. - Most notable developments in IR discipline which emerged out of post-colonial writings include: *a larger context of local resistance *disruption and opportunities created by empire-building *reciprocal flows of knowledge and culture to and from colonies *consideration of every-day politics of post-colonial settings, particularly women REVISING HISTORY, FILLING GAPS - Subaltern studies changed the perspective to how history and contemporary life looked from a subaltern’s (the poorest of the poor, the most silenced, invisible) perspective - This required new methodological approaches, as very few formal studies with such a focus had been carried out - In this sense subaltern studies are interested in both theoretical and activist approaches to global politics, highlighting their correlation - Literary studies, and the analysis of stories became a crucial way to move forward - Edward Said’s works examining Orientalism are highly influential (Orientalism, 1978) - He considers the ways that the Middle East and Asia have been portrayed in Western novels, biographies and artworks - This cultural representation seemed to indicate a degraded society that was easy to control/conquer - The point was/is to highlight cultural differences and render things ‘Oriental’ marginal and subordinate to the West - Traditional IR has had difficulties apprehending culture and the every-day (low) politics as a factor - Concerns most closely related remain framed as synonymous with ideology, and economics - Fukuyama’s and Huntington’s take on ‘cultures’ are unsophisticated in this respect - A post-colonial studies dilemma: is it possible for a (Western) researcher to ‘hear’ a subaltern without putting her words and experiences into familiar Western frameworks? (Gayatri Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak, 1988) - Interaction across cultures and differences of class, race, gender, generation, language etc. is often problematic - Presents a subtle form of neo-colonialism, where the West becomes the norm against which all other representations are constructed/measured > colonial discourse as an apparatus of power and surveillance which constructs the colonized (Homi Bhabha, Location of Culture) EVOLVING POST-COLONIALISM - A focus on hybrid and diasporic identities - World-travelling as post-colonial methodology intended to in part overcome these difficulties - A dissolution of the close ties between territorial location and identity - A global South exists within and across former colonial powers - Colonialism perceived as more complex in nature and scope OPPOSING OPINIONS: IS A CLASH OF CULTURES INEVITABLE? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Civilizations, not ideologies, drive The thesis undermines colonialism as a key contemporary IR factor shaping contemporary IR ‘The war on Terror’ is seen as a key Its approach to culture is too simplistic: example in this regard denies more nuanced forms of majority/ minority identities that emerged out of globalization and discussions over political goals, boundaries and shared global influence that emerged out of this. Political Islam is a key force of IR against which policies are placed  FEMINISM CHAPTER ELEVEN “The radical notion that women are people.” CRUCIAL DEFINITIONS - Definitions are according to textbook or standard PolSci definitions Sex: Two main categories – either male or female – that humans are allocated to on the basis of biological characteristics (i.e. genitals and reproductive systems) Gender: What it means to be male of female in a particular place or time. The social construction of sexual difference. Feminism: Range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that aim to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Gender Studies: Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing gender identity and gendered representation. Queer Studies: Queer studies – also known as sexual diversity studies or LGBT studies – is the study of issues relating to sexual orientation and gender identity. Focuses include gender dysphoria and various cultures of each sexual orientation. WHAT IS FEMINISM? - Feminism is part of constitutive theory (the world is intrinsic to and affected by theories of it) - There is no one single definition of feminism - Feminism is fundamentally rooted in an analysis of the global subordination of women—which can occur economically, politically, physically, and socially—and is dedicated to its elimination - Feminism informs both theories and social movements - The interplay among theorists, practitioners, policies and practice is vital to its definition - Feminism is an interdisciplinary theory - Feminism is concerned with the social construction of gender - Without feminism and feminist movements, women’s experiences and roles would have remained of little importance or interest to states DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF FEMINISM Liberal Feminism - An individualistic form of feminist theory. - Focuses on women’s ability to maintain their equality through own actions and choices. Social Feminism - Feminist theory that advocates for social rights and special accommodations for women. - First used to describe members of women’s suffrage movement in the late 19th/early 20th centuries – they were mostly concerned with social problems that affected women and children Marxist Feminism - Feminist theory and politics that has theoretical roots in Marxism - Criticises: capitalism as a set of structures, practices, institutions, incentives and sensibilities that promote exploitation of labour, alienation of human beings and the debasement of freedom Radical Feminism - Feminist perspective that calls for radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts - View society as fundamentally patriarchal and the arena in which men dominate and oppress women Black Feminism - Fundamental belief that sexism and racism are bound together – this is called intersectionality - Black feminism exists because the racism that black women experience is not adequately addressed by mainstream feminists (that is led by white middle-class women) Third World Feminism - Perspective stems from idea that feminism in the third world countries is not the same as feminism in first world countries - Third world feminism critiques mainstream feminism for universalising certain issues and that women in non-western countries are misrepresented - Argument is that ‘women’ as a universal group only classifies them by gender and not according to social class, race, or ethnicity Queer Feminism - A feminist theory that directly challenges issues like racism, homophobia, transphobia, imperialism, sex-negativity, etc. - Criticises mainstream feminism for excluding non-binary genders and ignores the serious problems created by patriarchy that harm people of all genders and can be used by any gender WAVES OF FEMINISM First wave Late 19th – early 20th century - Realisation: women must first gain political power (incl. right to vote) in order to bring about change - Political Agenda: expanded to issues concerning sexual, reproductive and economic matters - Started to cultivate belief that women have the potential to contribute to society just as much as men Second wave 1960’s – 1980’s; after end of WW2 - Focus: on workplace, sexuality, family and reproductive rights - Misconceptions: second wave was obsessed with middle class white women’s problems, dismissed as offensive, outdated and obsessed - Conversely: during second wave, many women were part of several groups fighting for equality, including Civil Rights Movement, Anti-Vietnam Movement, Asian-American Civil Right Movement, and Gay and Lesbian Movement - However, many women in these groups felt that they were not being heard or taken seriously and felt that in order to gain respect in co-ed groups they first needed to address gender equality concerns Third wave 1990’s – Early 2000’s - Unlike former movements, term ‘feminist’ became less critically received by the female population due to varying feminist outlooks (e.g. ego-cultural feminists, the radicals, the liberal feminists, ecofeminists, etc.) - Main issues were prefaced by work done by previous waves of women - Fight focus: eliminate clear differences in pay for men and women (gender wage gap) and the reproductive rights of women - Main agenda: end the violence against and abuse of women, fight for equality in all dimensions of life (socially, economically, politically, etc) And today? - Should note that tremendous progress has been made since first wave, BUT still much to be done. - Vast majority of feminist issues in modern society and this makes it difficult to put a label on what exactly today’s feminism is. - This leads to a brand new generation of feminists rallying for the equality and rights of women Highlights of newest wave of feminism include: - #MeToo movement: millions of women across the world shared their assault stories using the #MeToo hashtag - Time’s Up movement: bringing high profile assault cases to the spotlight. Many well- known men were exposed, including Harvey Weinstein, Bill Cosby, Chris Brown, Neil deGrasse Tyson, Brett Kavanaugh, and R. Kelly; the movement was fuelled by high-profile women and celebrities that demand change in their respective industries - Women in leadership roles and political positions: number of women in leadership roles and political positions have significantly increased; women are heavily influencing politics and social change through marches and social media campaigns FEMINISM AS IR THEORY - Concerned with exposing both positivist and post-positivist theories of IR as partial, biased, and limited because they reflected only certain (men’s) experiences, roles, and status - Advocate not simply to expand the scope of the field, but to radically alter its predicates - Feminist IR theories are disruptive, deconstructive, and re-constructive - Feminist theorists crucially demonstrated that the tradition of thought, which form the basis of conventional IR theories, is fundamentally predicated on the absence and insignificance of women (gender blindness) GENDER AND POWER - Power rests in social, political, and economic hierarchies - Different understandings of gender link the concept to power in different ways: *as an empirical variable understood as the biological (sex) difference between men and women *as a social construct that exists in social practices, identities, and institutions *as an effect of discourses of power - Gender becomes an analytical category that is not necessarily linked to male and female bodies LIBERAL FEMINIST IR THEORY - Advocate that the rights and representation conventionally granted to men be extended to women - Regard gender inequality as a major barrier to human development, which leads to greater incidences of war and violence - They suggest that a more comprehensive approach must address questions regarding the genesis, justification, and use of differences between the sexes, rather than presuming that we know in advance what these differences are CRITICAL FEMINIST THEORY - Highlight the broader social, economic, and political relationships that structure relational power - Draw from Marxist theories to prioritise the role of the economy - They identify gender and class oppressions as interdependent, and intertwined - Critical feminist theories are wary of gender essentialism POSTCOLONIAL FEMINIST IR THEORY - Postcolonial feminism seeks to situate historical knowledge of colonialism and postcolonialism as intersecting with economic, social, and political oppression and change - Argues that the feminism of the Global North is rooted in and dependent on discourses of rights and equality of pre-eminent concern to Western Europe - Resist the image of ‘Third World women’ as in need of paternal (Western) relations of protection - Postcolonial feminists call attention to it as another manifestation of the legacies of imperialism POSTSTRUCTURAL FEMINIST IR THEORY - Illuminates the constitutive role of language in creating gendered knowledge and experiences - Draws specifically from Judith Butler *She argued, that sex is constructed by gender rather than the other way around - Premised on the concept of gender performativity: gender is not what we are, but rather what we do - Socially, one becomes a woman by taking on the imperative to identify with the female/femininity and to desire the male/masculinity - This requires constant iteration OPPOSING OPINIONS: DOES FEMINIST FOREIGN POLICY CHANGE STATES’ FOREIGN POLICY DECISIONS? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Feminist foreign policy places gender Feminist foreign policy serves to legitimate equality at the crux of foreign policy conventional policy goals rather than decisions genuine gender equality It shapes how states act (e.g. U.S Agency The claim that feminist foreign policy shapes for International Development integrated how states act remains rhetorical gender into its foreign policy goals) WAR, SECURITY AND TERROR CHAPTER 12, 14, 24, 26, 28  THE CHANGING CHARACTER OF WAR CHAPTER 12 DEFINING WAR - There are many and sometimes contradictory definitions of what war actually is - Clausewitz: “An act of force intended to compel our opponents to fulfill our will”, and “a continuation of political intercourse with a mixture of other means” - Bull: “organised violence carried out by political units against each other” - Linked to strategy: war as a means to an end - Form of war depends on political units waging it: society shapes war, and war shapes society THE NATURE OF WAR - If war is a form of social and political behaviour, it follows that societal changes also change the nature of war - Technological advances have altered the organization of society - The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) led to a new societal phase – modernity CIVIL WAR VS INTERNATIONAL WAR - Modernity was characterised by a rise of nationalism, centralized and bureaucratic states, rising populations, Enlightenment - This made feasible the calling-up of mass armies - International law and rules of international relations and warfare evolved as a result CLAUSEWITZ (1780-1831) AND WAR - Key text: On War, 1976 - Trinity philosophy: 3 features determine nature of war *1. Passion (among people): beliefs about war *2. Chance (among military forces): test their abilities against trials and fortunes of war *3. Reason (among political leadership): decide upon the war and set its ultimate aims - Total war versus Limited war *fought for state’s existence vs. fought for lesser goal than existence; e.g. territorial disputes - War is always the means of political purposes POSTMODERN WAR - In some parts of the world the state is deliberately transferring functions, including military functions, to private authorities and businesses - Media is becoming more important in terms of shaping understanding of particular wars - A taboo against the use of nuclear weapons has developed in the global system NEW WARS - New wars are typically based around the disintegration of states and subsequent struggles for control of the state by opposing groups - Disintegration is usually preceded by economic hardship or collapse - Such wars are often characterized by the use of violence by an army against an unarmed civilian population - There is also a prevalent focus on identity POST-WESTPHALIAN WARFARE - The assumption that war is something that takes place between states is based on the acceptance of the Westphalian state system as the norm - The sub-state features of many wars have gained prominence - Issues of poverty, stability, development and peace have been increasingly seen as linked in an overall pattern of insecurity OPPOSING OPINIONS: DEMOCRATIC PEACE? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Statistically, democracies have not gone to The definitions of democracy in such war with one another since 1816 statistical analyses are problematic Kantian notions of international federations Democratic states have crushed emerging decrease wars waged among member democratic powers and popular movements states to this date (esp. During the Cold War) The theory must not be applied to non-state The theory is thus dependent on states’ self- actors as it is embedded in Kant’s notion of interests republican states  INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY CHAPTER FOURTEEN THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY - Security is a contested concept - It implies freedom from physical threats to core values for both individuals and groups - There is disagreement about whether the main focus should be on individual, national, international, or global security - During the Cold War the focus was for the most part trained on national security, and the military capabilities required to deal with current threats - A number of contemporary writers have aimed to expand the conception of security - Political, economic, societal, and environmental, as well as military aspects have been deemed important factors - An important question is whether national and international security can be compatible - Some would prefer that more attention should be directed towards societal security - A stress on national and international security may be less appropriate because of the emergence of an embryonic global society in the post-cold war era - The broad process of globalization brings new risks and dangers, including international terrorism, a breakdown of the global monetary system, global warming, cyber conflict, and the dangers of nuclear accidents THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO NATIONAL SECURITY - From the treaties of Westphalia, states have been regarded as the most powerful actors in a ‘self-help’ world - Many thinkers have been pessimistic about the implications of state sovereignty: *States claiming sovereignty inevitably develop offensive military capabilities to defend themselves and are thus potentially dangerous to each other. - All states need to balance the power of other states to prevent any one from achieving overall hegemony - Neo-realists argue that national security is largely the result of the structure of the international system - The structure of anarchy is seen as highly durable - Liberal institutionalists place a greater emphasis on international institutions, and argue that they play a crucial role in enhancing security ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES - Constructivist theorists argue that the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material - Securitization is often linked to such approaches: security as a speech-act - Changes in the nature of social interaction between states can bring a fundamental shift towards greater international security - A security community such as NATO is an example of shared knowledge in which states trust one another to resolve disputes without war - Critical theorists focus their attention on the way existing relationships and institutions emerge and what might be done to change them - Critical security studies has emerged as a sub-field of security studies which is approached from multiple different social approaches (gender/ feminism, poststructuralist, Marxist, etc.) - States should not be the centre of analysis because of their diversity in character and because they are often part of the problem of insecurity in the international system GLOBALIZATION AND THE RETURN OF GEOPOLITICS? - There is an ongoing debate about whether globalization and geopolitics are compatible in a changing world - Critics argue that geopolitics has to do with national and imperial control of the space and resources, whereas globalization has to do with the free flow of goods, capital and ideas - Different views of globalization and geopolitics give rise to different conclusions about world order - Globalization can thus be imagined as bringing greater peace and security - For others, it can lead to greater fragmentation and conflict as the status quo is challenged OPPOSING OPINIONS: DID THE 2015 NUCLEAR AGREEMENT WITH IRAN ENHANCE INTERNATIONAL SECURITY? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS The material possibility of building Iranian Concessions made in crucial areas of nuclear weapons was severely impeded in prevention terms of restricted uranium enrichment Normalization of international relations due Geopolitical instability will persist to abolishment of economic sanctions to lead to international stability This might even lead to an arms race Agreement only served to legitimise current Iranian government and release funds for support of international terror groups  HUMAN SECURITY CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR WHAT IS HUMAN SECURITY? - The 1994 Human Development Report (by the UNDP) defined the scope of human security to include seven areas: * Economic security: assuring basic income for individuals, usually from productive and remunerative work or (in the last resort) from some publicly financed safety net * Food security: ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to basic food * Health security: guaranteeing a minimum protection from diseases and unhealthy lifestyles * Environmental security: shielding people from the short- and long-term ravages of nature, man-made threats in nature, and deterioration of the natural environment * Personal security: protecting people from physical violence, whether from the state or external states, from violent individuals or sub-state factors, from domestic abuse, or from predatory adults * Community security: safeguarding people from the loss of traditional relationships and values, and from sectarian and ethnic violence * Political security: ensuring people live in a society that honours their basic human rights, and that individuals and groups are free from government attempts to exercise over ideas and information - Nonetheless, ‘human security’ remains a contested concept - Three aspects are crucial to the definition of human security a) individual becomes main referent object b) emphasises multidimensional nature c) emphasises a global/universal scope - Attempts to create a broader paradigm for developments have been mirrored by growing concerns about the negative impact of defence spending on development (the ‘guns versus butter’ dilemma) - A growing emphasis in the post-Cold War era has been human rights and humanitarian intervention DEBATES ABOUT HUMAN SECURITY - For critics of human security, the concept is too broad to be analytically meaningful or useful as a tool of policy-making - Another criticism is that the concept might cause more harm than good – because it is too moralistic and hence unattainable and unrealistic - A third critical point is that it neglects the role of the state as a provider of security - A major debate about human security has occurred over the scope of the concept, and whether it should primarily be about freedom from fear, or freedom from want - The differences between the two conceptualisations of human security can however be overstated: both focus on the individual and both acknowledge the role of globalization and the nature of armed conflict DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SECURITY Many armed conflicts have indirect consequences on human life and well-being: *Economic disruption, leading to poverty *Disease *Education and other social systems *Ecological destruction and environmental degradation *Women’s social standing PROMOTING HUMAN SECURITY The most important multilateral actions to promote human security include: – Several War Crimes Tribunals – The International criminal Court (ICC) was established in 2002, and has the power to ‘exercise its jurisdiction of persons for the most serious crimes of international concern’, e.g. genocide – when national courts are unwilling or unable to take on such crimes – The Antipersonnel Landmines Treaty (1997) NGOs also contribute to human security: - Information/warning about conflicts - Provide channel for relief operations - Support government/N-sponsored peacebuilding missions Challenges to the promotion of human security include: – The prevailing importance of national/state security over human security – State sovereignty and territorial integrity usually take precedence over security of the individual – Authoritarian regimes who limit individuals’ civil liberties thus remain in control within their own territories – The so-called ‘war on terror’ has heightened these concerns, and has even led to some questioning of the applicability of the Geneva Conventions  OPPOSING OPINIONS: DOES A HUMAN SECURITY APPROACH CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO WORLD PEACE AND ORDER ADVOCATES OPPONENTS It encourages governments to think beyond The problem of inter-state military war remains national security: emphasis is thus non-military security policies Greater participation of NGOs provides Countries continue to spend heavily on defence valuable early warnings on regional conflicts and weapons (notions like the security dilemma remain) It promotes sustainable development policies The concept is too broad to assure funds and is thus meaningless to policy-makers politics It calls for greater respect for and promotion of It allows for military establishment in domestic human rights politics  PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX THE SPREAD OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS TECHNOLOGY - The 1968 Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty recognized five nuclear weapons states: the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China (The five permanent members of the UN Security Council) - In addition, India, Pakistan, and North Korea are known to possess nuclear weapons, and Israel is thought to possess them - A major obstacle in making nuclear weapons is obtaining weapons grade fissile material, as that involves complex technical processes - These processes are time-consuming and thus possible to monitor though ambiguities emerge due to the dual-use of nuclear technology - Globalization, the growth of nuclear energy and the spread of dual use nuclear technology has heightened concerns that a non-state actor might acquire nuclear weapons THEORETICAL DEBATES ABOUT NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION - Nuclear opacity is a policy pursued by Israel - She has not signed the NPT but has also never confirmed that she possesses a nuclear arsenal (but probably does) - Latent nuclear capacity describes a country that possesses the necessary capabilities to quickly assemble nuclear weapons but has never done so (e.g. Japan) Why do states build nuclear weapons? – The security model (trying to increase national security) – The domestic politics model (to advance parochial domestic and bureaucratic interests) – The norms model (symbol of a state’s identity) – The psychology model (leaders’ conception of the nation’s identity) – The political economy model (economic incentives) – The strategic culture model (states have certain ideas about how valuable the acquisition/use of nuclear weapons is) - Existential deterrence is the idea that even a limited nuclear strike capability will deter conflicts - Critics argue that the beneficial effects of such deterrence are more than offset by nuclear capabilities proliferation and concomitant insecurities - The stability-instability paradox states that nuclear powers feel safe from large-scale attack and so feel free to engage in low-scale provocations NUCLEAR POSTURE Viping Narang’s three types of nuclear posture: – Catalytic posture (e.g. Israel) is designed to catalyse outside assistance in the event of a crisis – Assured retaliation posture (e.g. China and India) seems to deter nuclear attack by guaranteeing retaliation – Asymmetric escalation posture (e.g. France and Pakistan) means to deter conventional attack by threatening rapid escalation to a nuclear counter-attack EVOLUTION OF NON-PROLIFERATION EFFORTS - Horizontal proliferation: the spread of nuclear weapons to new countries - Vertical proliferation: nuclear weapons states increasing the size of their nuclear arms stockpiles - Various non-proliferation efforts have tried to address either or both dimensions (especially during the cold war of the 1960s) - The International Atomic Energy Agency was established in 1957, under the auspices of the United Nations The main nuclear non-proliferation regime is the 1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which now has 190 signatories – The United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and China were recognided as having the rights to assess nuclear weapons – all other states agreed to forego the development of nuclear arsenals – The recognised nuclear powers were to move towards the elimination of their arsenals – Peaceful nuclear technology was to be allowed - The Non-Proliferation Treaty has weak enforcement provisions - Critics argue that the treaty is fundamentally unfair as it privileges the nuclear status of the five original nuclear weapons states, to the detriment of all other countries - In 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union signed a treaty (SALT I) limiting the number of missiles and ballistic missile defences - The ratification of an evolved treaty (SALT II) in 1979 was suspended when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, but was nevertheless tacitly honoured by both parties - The two strategic arms reduction treaties (STARTs) signed in the 1990s reduced stockpiles Counter-proliferation attempts include: – A 2004 UN Security Council resolution aims to prevent non-state actors from acquiring WMDs – The proliferation Security Initiative (2003) aims to improve international cooperation to interdict trafficking and transfer of WMD materials and delivery systems – The Nuclear Security Summit (first occasion 2010) aims to increase cooperation to prevent nuclear smuggling The ‘Global Zero’ movement wants to rid the world of all such weapons OPPOSING OPINIONS: SHOULD THE USE OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS IN 2013 HAVE BEEN A RED LINE TRIGGERING INTERNATIONAL INTERVENTION IN SYRIA? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Humanitarian costs require the international Intervention should be used as a last resort: community to act Diplomacy must be given more of a chance Its use violates international treaties Reports remain inconclusive on the use of chlorine as a weapon Loss of control over the weapons increases Costs are too high risks that non-state actors acquire them Obama‘s credibility was lost when he opted Both sides of the conflict have used for non-intervention chemical weapons. This makes intervention ambiguous  TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT UNDERSTANDING TERRORISM - Terrorism is characterized, first and foremost, by the use of violence - Historically, the term described state violence against citizens during the French Revolution - Some view terrorist acts as legitimate only if they meet the criteria associated with revisionist interpretations of the just war tradition, e.g. just cause, proportional use of violence and the use of force as a last resort - Terrorism is the weakest form of irregular warfare because such groups rarely possess a broad support of the population - The idea is often to inspire fear and/or provoke responses that will disaffect public opinion, increase support for the cause, and eventually effect political change - Technologies associated with globalization have increased terrorist capabilities and widened its reach TERRORISM: FROM TRANSNATIONAL TO GLOBAL PHENOMENON - Traditionally, terrorism has rarely had an impact beyond national borders Factors leading to the birth of transnational terrorism – Expansion of commercial air travel – Availability of televised news coverage – Broad political and ideological interests among extremists that intersected around a common cause stimulated global cooperation – Initial acquiescence on the part of states to terrorist demands - Al Qaeda (‘the Base’) received widespread recognition after its 9/11 attacks - Al Qaeda losses in the ‘war against terrorism’ have turned it into a global movement configured as a loose network of franchised cells or groups, bound together by its religious ideas TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION: CULTURAL EXPLANATIONS - For some terrorists, violence is seen as the only method of preserving traditions and values against a cultural tsunami of Western products and materialism that follow globalization - Samuel Huntington has famously argued that a major fault line exists between Western and Islamic civilisations - Critics argue that such a view ascribes a non-existing homogeneity to the Islamic world TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION: ECONOMIC EXPLANATIONS - Globalization has benefited the West in ways that radicalists can opt to perceive as a form of Western economic imperialism - Political decisions to deregulate or privatize industries may lead to significant social and economic upheaval - Some argue that terrorist violence is motivated by inequalities of the global economy TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION: RELIGION AND ‘NEW’ TERRORISM - Global jihad is viewed by some as a reaction to the perceived oppression of Muslims worldwide, and the spiritual bankruptcy of the West - Viewed thus, Muslims face a choice in a more interconnected world: accept Western beliefs to better integrate, or preserve spiritual purity by rebelling - Differences in value structures make deterrence of religious terrorism difficult GLOBALIZATION, TECHNOLOGY AND TERRORISM - States have traditionally had an advantage in their ability to control information flows The Internet has changed this dynamic – Fighters can be immortalized in the virtual sphere – Dissemination of propaganda is made far easier – The common and ubiquitous infrastructure can be used to coordinate attacks and other actions – Encrypted communication provides security COMBATING TERRORISM - National law and international conventions have been established to combat terrorism - One idea is for the global North to improve the capabilities of much of the global South, to make these countries better able to act forcefully against groups within their own borders - Global strike tech (e.g. drones) make technologically advanced states able to carry out surveillance or project power abroad - Disagreements exist over how best to deal with terrorism philosophically - Pragmatically, the largest problems reside in locating terrorists and isolating them from their means of support - States’ bureaucracies can impede or negate technical and resource advantages over terrorist groups OPPOSING OPINIONS: SHOULD STATES TARGETED BY TERRORISM AGGRESSIVELY ADDRESS THE THREAT BEYOND THEIR NATIONAL BORDERS? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Sovereignty understood as states’ Aggressive measures often lead to a power responsibility over their own citizens, makes vacuum that is filled with more terrorism states’ combating of terrorism outside of their own boarders a necessity. Proactive measures can limit the ability of Intervention as a response to terrorism terrorist groups to act freely, which thus poses greater risks to populations than keeps the homeland safer damages by terrorists themselves Such responses do not address the root causes of terrorism and are thus only temporary measures They undermine global moral authority of intervening states TRADE, POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 13, 21, 23  GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY CHAPTER THIRTEEN IMPORTANT CONCEPTS Politics: The activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power Economics: The activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power IMPORTANT MARKERS 1944: BW1 (IBRD, IMF, ITO!GATT), Marshall Plan 1950s - 1960s: Decolonisation, EEC 1971: Nixon’s surprise, birth of BW2 1973: Oil shock 1, credit glut 1979: Oil shock 2, interest rates jump 1980s: Debt crisis, SAPs, Washington Consensus 1987: Black Monday 1990s: End of History, PRSPs, WTO 1998: Asian Flu 2000-2015: MDGs 2007: GFC 2016: SDGs INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY - IPE has focused on the interplay of economics and politics in world affairs - What drives and explains events in the world economy? - IPE tries explain what creates and perpetuates institutions and what impact institutions have on the world economy - IPE is centered on the trinity of trade, production and finance TRADITIONAL AND NEW APPROACHES TO IPE Three separate traditions dominate historically: *the liberal tradition *nationalism/realism *Marxism - Where liberals prefer free trade, realists view the international system as a jungle where each state must maximise its wealth and independence – if necessary using tariffs to accomplish these aims - Marxism views world economic relations as a class struggle between oppressor and oppressed - It is concerned with capitalism as the structure of the global political economy WHAT DRIVES GLOBALIZATION? - The term globalisation refers to at least four different sets of forces or processes in the world economy: *Internationalisation *Technological revolution *De-territorialization *Liberalisation - The question is how it affects the role of the state and international cooperation (and institutions) Two theories are important here - 1. Modernisation theory (Walt Rostow): the world is divided into the ‘advanced’ West and the underdeveloped South, which must ‘catch up’ - 2. underdevelopment theory: ‘catch up’ is not possible because the structure of capitalism means that development requires underdevelopment (Marxist and postcolonial influences) - Bretton Woods institutions were viewed by developing countries as systematically undermining their interests - 1970s: marked by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and New International Economic Order (NIEO) to reduce developing countries’ dependence on the international economy -1980s debt crisis triggered ‘neo-liberal counter-revolution’ - Fundamental structural changes in the global political economy - Material and ideational dimensions of power are always bound together - Globalization is constructed by sets of ideas and associated discourses - It is driven by changing political landscapes where corporate interests remain dominant WHO WINS AND WHO LOSES FROM GLOBALIZATION? - Expectations that neoliberal globalization would lift the world’s population out of poverty have been misplaced - Even where improvements have been made global numbers do not account for uneven distribution - This points to persistent structures of inequality between the global ‘South’ and the global ‘North’ - Some argue that dynamics of globalization itself are responsible for growing inequality - Labour exploitation is an expression of inequality due to globalization - Marxist critique of capitalist structure and the pressures exerted by TNCs on producers and supplier firms with regard to cost and supply conditions - Informal, migrant and contract workers have become the backbone of the global labour force - This work is precarious and unprotected - ‘Feminization’ of labour means that women are among the most vulnerable CASE STUDY 1: THE BRICS AND THE RISE OF CHINA - Since 1980s: dramatic growth for Indian and Chinese economies - Term ‘BRICs’ was first coined in 2001 (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and sometimes South Africa) - 2016: Chinese yuan is included in IMF *reserve currency - China is largest foreign holder of US debt - Its economy remains under strong state control *will its rise mean a new global political-economic order; a challenge to neoliberal dominance? CASE STUDY 2: SLAVERY AND FORCED LABOUR IN GLOBAL PRODUCTION - ILO estimates that around 21million people are working in conditions of forced labour - US Department of Labour identifies 136 goods from 74 countries to be produced by forced or child labour - Coercion is expressed through: *lack of formal contracts *debt manipulation *threats of imprisonment when workers want to leave jobs *restrictions on free movement *(threats of) use of violence OPPOSING OPINIONS: ARE NATIONAL STATES IRRELEVANT IN AN ERA OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Nation states are ill-equipped to govern Nation states remain essential to global globalization governance Markets, global capital and TNCs undermine Powerful states are the authors of states‘ power and authority globalization Global processes have eroded policy space Governments retain significant policy (e.g. erosion of national borders) direction  GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO GLOBALIZATION OF TRADE AND FINANCE - Intensity of global flows of trade and finance refers to the degree to which national economic borders are traversed by such flows - Extensity measures refers to the geographical dispersal of the flows - The word ‘globalization’ is frequently used to describe both dimensions; it has become synonymous with the time period of enhanced national market integration since the 1970s crisis GLOBALIZATION OF TRADE AND FINANCE: INTENSITY MEASURES - Globalization hotspots have centred on advanced industrial countries, where there has been significant intensification of cross-border economic activity - In spite of the severe economic downturn during and after the financial crisis, world trade is still trending upwards - By contrast, many of the poorest countries of the world remain more or less untouched by the new economic structures GLOBALIZATION OF TRADE AND FINANCE EXTENSITY MEASURES - Extensity factors are more likely to be apparent the more deeply embedded a country is within a regional trading system - Extensity effects will almost certainly be more notable within the regional bloc than beyond its borders - Foreign direct investment is the most obvious example of extensity GLOBALIZATION OF TRADE AND FINANCE - Global finance is concentrated in the north Atlantic economy (OECD) - The massive increase in world trade since the 1970s can to a large extent be explained by regional economic integration rather than by ‘genuine’ globalization - Financial trading patterns do not correspond with actual impact of that trading, which is more likely to be global in reach REGULATION OF GLOBAL TRADE - The 1944 Bretton Woods Conference aimed to design a post-war governance structure that would prevent the world economy from entering a depression - The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 with a weaker mandate than some had envisioned - The GATT system was unwieldy, depending on individual negotiations for each tariff concession - GATT was replaced in 1995 by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) - The WTO was designed to embed free-trade norms in international law with multilateral reach - WTO membership is an implicit assurance that a market-based mindsets based on comparative advantage permeates macro-economic management of the country in question *This can help poor countries secure positive assessments by the IMF and credit rating agencies CASE STUDY 1: COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE THEORY IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE - Initial publication of the theory in 1817, by David Ricardo - He used the hypothetical markets of England (cloth export) and Portugal (wine export) to illustrate his theory - In in simple terms: comparative advantage theory means that every country is encouraged to concentrate economically on what it does best - When both economies are opened to the multilateral market all sides benefit - Critics argue, however, that this logic only holds in the face of full political equality in the terms of trade among all participants - In other words, trading goods must balance each other out - Where there is a case of ‘dumping economics’ where cheap exports from one party flood the market of the other, the theory collapses REGULATION OF GLOBAL TRADE - WTO has been notably bad at getting industrialized countries to abandon the systems of agricultural support which prevents many developing countries from exploiting their comparative advantages - For the average developing country, WTO membership hinges on lifting restrictions on rich country access to non-agricultural markets but without gaining similar access to rich countries’ agricultural markets The structural decision-making at the WTO reflects the fact that member power is unequally distributed – Votes are not taken on individual measures to incrementally build up a body of international trade law that is acceptable by all – At each WTO ministerial meeting, members must instead decide whether or not to accept a whole package of reforms known as the Single Undertaking – Rich countries thus enjoy overwhelming agenda-setting power - Unlike the WTO, the principal bodies that regulate global finance have no democratic pretensions associated with its governance system - The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank are both expert-run and dominated by the countries that finance the maintenance of the regulatory system - To gain access to loans, borrowers have to accept specific (politically mandated) conditions Critics of these institutions are not necessarily protesting against finance per se, but usually focus on the ideological effects that follow from the set conditions – Groups like the Occupy Movement have criticized the concentration of wealth in the hands of the already well-heeled; a consequence of self-regulating financial markets (expose the accountability deficit) – The IMF and the World Bank are visible formal symbols of global finance and so draw these groups’ attention The IMF and the World Bank have embraced substantial elements of ‘mission creep’, touching on a role reversal, since their inception – The priority of global economic governance at the end of WW2 was to stimulate freemarket flows of traded goods rather than to stimulate free-market flows of finance – Market self-regulation of finance was formally disqualified in this period, and the IMF was to ensure that capital controls were robust CASE STUDY 2: THE OCCUPY MOVEMENT - The movement rose to prominence in the immediate aftermath of the 2007-2008 financial crisis - Slogan ‘we are the 99%’ makes reference to – the fact that 1% of world’s population owns half its economic assets *1/8 of the population who live below the World Bank poverty line of $1.25/day *the struggles faced in by those on the front-line of austerity policies on national terms - Camps set up by demonstrators around the skyscrapers of New York and London served to make reference to the embodiments of the unequal global economic structures - Occupy was a global movement which shared experiences of injustice to create new networks and understandings across national borders - The success of the movement remains contested - If the aim is the overthrow of global capitalism then it is unlikely that the movement can be successful - Visible policy victories remain unlikely - If the aim is the raising of consciousness about the inequality of global economic structures then success can be seen  POVERTY, DEVELOPMENT AND HUNGER CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE POVERTY - The orthodox conception of poverty refers to a situation where people lack the money to satisfy basic needs *It has been widely regarded as characterising the Third World and has a notable gendered element - Alternative use of the poverty term emphasise spiritual values, community ties, and availability of common resources *The UNDP is significant for distinguishing income poverty (GDP/capita, growth, dollars a day) from human poverty (HPI, MPI) HUNGER - Broadly speaking, there are two schools of thought with regard to hunger: - The orthodox, nature-focused approach identifies the problem largely as one of overpopulation (Malthusianism) - The entitlement, society-focused approach sees the problem more in terms of distribution HUNGER: THE ORTHODOX EXPLANATION In 1798, Thomas Robert Malthus outlined the orthodox perception of the relationship between human population growth and the food supply – Population growth naturally outstrips the growth in food production, until some disaster reduces the human population to a (temporarily) sustainable level – This view means that ways to reduce the fertility of the human race represent the only viable solution – This supports the idea that strict family planning policies will be required in the Third World HUNGER: THE ENTITLEMENT EXPLANATION - Critics of the orthodox view point out the enormous increase in food production per capita - They further note that the Third World produces much of the world’s food, while those who consume most of it are located in the Western world - Famines have often occurred when there has been no significant reduction in the level of per capita food availability - Whether a person starves or eats often depends on whether or not he or she can establish an entitlement to available food - This theory was fundamentally put forth by Amartya Sen - This means that the structural conditions for hunger prevail even when there is more than enough food to go around - Another important work on the matter is Jenny Edkins’ book Whose Hunger? - The incorporation of local systems of food production into a global system has exacerbated these structural conditions CONCEPTUALISING DEVELOPMENT - Development can be conceived only within an ideological framework - The dominant (neo)liberal conceptualization is that development is synonymous with economic growth in the context of a free-market international economy - Alternative views incorporate matters of democracy, such as political empowerment, participation, self-determination etc. POST-WAR DEVELOPMENT - The establishment of the IMF, the World Bank group, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade founded a liberal international economic order (a.k.a. ‘embedded liberalism’) - In the early post-war period, all states nevertheless favoured an important role for the state in development matters - During the Cold War both sides offered economic support for development - In the early 1980s, radically increased interest rates and falling commodity prices made many developing countries unable to repay spiralling debts - The IMF and the World Bank strongly encouraged developing countries to pursue market-oriented strategies *The belief was that global welfare can be maximised by the liberalization of trade, finance, and investment *Throughout the Third World the state was rolled back - Orthodox liberal assessment of development suggests that ‘liberal globalization’ has indeed been a major driver of development of poor nations - The idea that ‘trickle-down effects’ will bring benefits for the poorer classes in each country has however not been validated *Wealth polarization has increased in the developing world *Concomitant social unrest can in some cases be mitigated by aid and poverty reduction schemes POST-WAR DEVELOPMENT: THE CRITICAL VIEW - Since the 1970s, there have been attempts to engender debate about the contested nature of development - The Dag Hammarskjöld foundation have conceptualised the ideal nature of development. It should be: *Need oriented *Endogenous *Self-reliance *Ecologically sound *Based on structural transformations POST-WAR DEVELOPMENT: ORTHODOX RESPONSES TO THE CRITICAL VIEW - In the mainstream debate, the focus has shifted from growth to sustainable development, a concept championed in the late 1980s by the Brundtland commission *A new emphasis is intergenerational equity *An acceptance that there are natural limits to growth  *Growth is important but needs to be made environment friendly - There are concerns that these ambitions have been drained by national interests OPPOSING OPINIONS: WILL THE NEOLIBERAL WORLD ORDER ULTIMATELY DELIVER ON ITS PROMISE OF DEVELOPMENT AND THE ABOLITION OF POVERTY AND HUNGER WORLDWIDE? ADVOCATES OPPONENTS Free market enterprise promotes wealth for Crucially, economic, social and cultural all rights are missing from the neoliberal order Trickle-down economics Wealth creation can only be achieved where there is stable social context which would require global restructuring in favour of redistribution Laissez-faire economics makes capital Trickle-down does not work due to tax available for investment havens Neoliberal world order has demonstrated Decline in state regulation means a decline wealth creation empirically in social welfare Claimed declines in global poverty have been artificially induced GENDER, RACE AND THE ENVIRONMENT CHAPTER 19, 20, 23  GENDER CHAPTER NINETEEN SEX AND GENDER IN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE - Gender inequalities (expressed in cultural, social, economic and political asymmetries) do not stem from an original and immutable biological division - Instead, when we think about appropriate ways to be a man or a woman we are obeying societal norms/rules - Feminists therefore distinguish between sex – biological characteristics, primarily genital and reproductive – and gender – the social codes that express masculinity and femininity. - Gender shapes temperament (our personality), role (our activities), and status (our importance/influence on others) - Society is organised in relation to, and stratified by, gender: obeying by gender norms results in privilege and reward; their rejection often means exclusion and shame - Understanding gender means analysing how masculinity and femininity are constructed in relation to men and women while always being conscious that gender norms and ideologies are not reducible to the dichotomy of a sexual binary - Gender is a global power structure, often embedded in other global power structures (intersectionality) - So gender matters internationally because the masculine/feminine categorisation is key to the operation of political power: *The personal is political *The personal is international - Patriarchy, ‘the rule of men’ is one term often used to describe such inequalities GLOBAL GENDER RELATIONS - Because gender is organised through diverse, malleable and contested social norms, it is best understood not as the property of specific persons but as a situated interaction of concepts and practices - Both men and women therefore perform gender - Gender is a relational concept; the meanings of masculinity and femininity are not fixed but established in interaction and contrast to each other - Gender is multiple, not binary - Concepts of gender change over time GENDERING GLOBAL POLITICS - Policies of international organisations as well as several UNSC resolutions have increasingly adopted gender main-streaming - Examples include extending primary education, reducing infant mortality and implementing the treaty obligations of the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) - But the effectiveness of such measures remains contested - Critics argue that progress is slow and remains limited to the area of gender in military conflict GENDERING SECURITY - IR has conventionally regarded war in abstract terms, where states of different material powers interact as separate entities - Gender scholars ask instead what role masculinity and femininity play in the practice of war: It is in many cases a myth that men fight wars to protect women and children - Military training in part includes efforts to denigrate any feminine characteristics (many militaries still have restrictions on sexual orientations) - Warriors are gendered male - Civilians in turn are gendered female OPPOSING OPINIONS: IS WAR INHERENTLY MASCULINE? ADVOCATES