SOCI 263 Introduction PDF

JANUARY 7 TH- INTRODUCTION Introduction Political science: focused on grand political institutions. The definition, subject matter and dimensions of political Political sociology= interested in (...

JANUARY 7 TH- INTRODUCTION Introduction Political science: focused on grand political institutions. The definition, subject matter and dimensions of political Political sociology= interested in (still about grand elections, voting, etc) but also a sociology much broader look at politics: in how social and sociological factors influence The relationship between sociology and politics anything that is political in our lives- anything that has to do with power and conflict. Historical antecedents of sociological reflection on the -​ Distribution of power, resources, etc. bases of political order Classical and contemporary theories (approaches) in He is focused on a bottom-up approach. In what ways does the social impact the political sociology political. -​ We have to go beyond what typically interests political scientists: the state, big institutions, etc. in doing so, they neglect the sociological dimension. -​ Politics is always an outgrowth of the social.. To demonstrate how the sociological reflection on politics is very old. He wants to question the basis of a just, moral, and political order. How did political thinkers in the past conceptualize the basis of the social order? Why political sociology? ​ Political sociology is an intersection of sociology and politics. The two Political sociology is a link between sociology and intersect and meet. Sociological factors impact everything that is political. political science Political sociology as a branch of sociology which examines: “the social causes and consequences of given power distributions within or between societies” social and political conflicts that lead to “changes in the allocation of power” (Coser 1996 in Dobratz et al 2019:3). Sociology A definition of sociology to understand how the two intersect. -​ The social construction of reality- how we ​ Our social life isn't objective, given to us, or natural. It is influenced and construct meaning(s) and then act (and impacted by how we interact with one another, what we believe in, what interact!) on the basis of those meanings values we hold to be true, and how we conceptualize life in general. The -​ Social actors and social structures (social social order is taken for granted, when it is really constructed. institutions) ​ Weber; mainly concerned with how ideas shape people's actions. WHat -​ How/in what way does society exist and is people do depends on their interests and how they express them. maintained and re-created? (For example: ​ All of these 3 aspects go into political sociology and help us explain politics Berger and Luckman 1966) in society- and its conflicts. Politics Political science on the other hand; ​ Governance ​ One of the immediately apparent differences is that political science is rarely ​ Public affairs interested in the social; culture, social construction of reality, and other ​ Consensus and conflict of interests sociological factors. They don't necessarily ignore these factors, but they put ​ Power and allocation of resources (Heywood more emphasis on the factors on the left. 2004) ​ Example: Nationalism; ○​ If we have the nation, we could look at it through institutions of the  state: governance, prime minister, president but the nation is so much more than these broad political aspects. The impact of social and cultural factors on people's identities- so political science and sociology need to blend in order to understand their relationship. Sociology and politics Weber: power is the ability of individuals or groups to prevail and achieve their goals ​ Political science= is mostly interested in the despite the conditions of their environment. functioning of the state and state institutions -​ You have power if you can do what you want to do even if others resist. and in how these impact citizens Power is the main resource that you need in life. ​ Political sociology= is mostly interested in In political sociology, power can also be symbolic. There are other sources of power how social action of citizens influences the state beyond force and political influence. Culture is a powerful reservoir of power, its and, institutions, and politics in general symbols, and what people believe is important to them. The idea of the nation is ​ Ultimately, political sociology studies how symbolic. social processes, structures (institutions) and “It is ideas that run the world”- powerful ideas that really change/run the world, its phenomena intersect with the exercise of not banks or etc. Its powerful ideologies that are responsible for anything that has political power by a variety of agents = as well happened to us. as the practical expressions, implications, and 3. Social processes and structure and phenomenon= cultural phenomenon and cultural consequences of these intersections in everyday symbols and institutions. In a way, culture is everything. The cultural framework that lives of citizen informs our worldview. The most powerful conflicts have happened because of culture on some level at least. Culture and power are often very connected. The idea here is that everything can be seen as political. 1.​ What are the social factors that enable us to achieve our goals? Social bases of politics in civil society Civil society: Hicks et al define civil society as; -​ Public sphere- any public service where the state has a major role to play 1. “everything about society that is not the state” and either as a provider or a regulator. For example, education and healthcare. 2. “where the state has overlapped into other arenas: Mass education would not have been possible without the massive funds, energy and efforts by the modern state. Similarly in healthcare. The media: ​ public sphere: education and health institutions, the sphere where public opinion can form and citizens can be informed. The media economy: how much of our lives depends on the economy. ​ market sphere : corporations -​ Private sphere: where we lead our social lives away from work, economies, ​ private sphere: family life, friends and school. Private and personal social lives. acquaintances (Hicks et al 2005: 21) One of the problems with political sociology is that a lot of the theories don't take into account the effects of the media era. Historical reflection on “political “What should be the nature of social order” sociology” “What should be the guiding principles for choosing our leader” These are questions we asked ourselves, how to distribute power. This means that people have been thinking of these issues for thousands of years, one way or another. Ancient roots of “political sociology” Plato Republic, c. 5 th – 4 th BCE Aristotle Politics, c. 4 th BCE Augustin of Hippo (c. 5 th CE) De Civitate Dei (The City of God) Origins of the theory of the state -​ Plato was an exponent of idealism.  Plato -​ Any horse that you meet is merely a very imperfect reflection of an ideal Claimed that everything that we see (or perceive horse. through senses) is just a reflection of the “perfect form” -​ Everything here in our world is imperfect, it reflects reflection but things or “essence” of what we see. Thus, a state we live in could be better. was merely a less than perfect reflection of the ideal -​ Anything that exists is an imperfect reflection of the perfect, and the same state or the essence of the state way of thinking plato applies to the state. -​ The state is the reflection of a perfect state. Analogy between the individual and the -​ He takes the soul and divides it into three parts. We all have these three parts. state For plato: its not good when either our desires or emotiosn are out of control. Three parts of the human soul: Usually bad things happen when 1 or 2 of those things are not moderated. 1. Reason (mind, intellect) -​ He says we need reason to introduce harmony into our lives. To be the 2. Appetite (desire) moderator of our actions. To be the guiding ight tha makes sure we keep our 3. The spirited (“hot-blooded”, emotional) part appetite and emotions in check. -​ Analogy between the individual and the -​ He takes this idea of the human personality and applies it to the state…simlar state process should be taken into the state. Plato’s ideal state: -​ Just like in the human person, reason should be the most important faculty -​ Ruled by sages (philosophers) (the ruling class) that rules everything else. So is the case in the government community> who are like the reason/mind part of the soul wisdom. So then sages or philosophers should be ruling the state. -​ Provided for by craftsmen and farmers (the -​ They satisfy the needs and wants of our society. producers) – who are to the state what the -​ Emotion and courage, persistence and determination is filled by the guards, appetite/desire part is to the soul soldiers, and military class. -​ Watched over by guards (the military class) – One of the first attempts to come up with class divisions, or divisions of functions who are symbolized by the spirited part of the within society. soul Aristotle’s concept of “good life” -​ Aristotle politics and his idea of what constitutes a good life. The only life worth living is social life -​ For example, the strong middle class is the backbone of democracy. We need Aristotle distinguished between: a strong middle class in order for democracy to be healthy. Otherwise -​ mere biophysical life (zoe) problems happen. -​ social life (bios) -​ For Aristotle the only life that is worth living is public life, social life. Zoe, Greek word for life. Life that we share with all life. We all live, sleep and eat. -​ Social life: quality, better, social, communal life. Which BIOS also means life. We need to be part of a larger society to be happy. In order to fulfill our human potential. Aristotle’s concept of “good life” -​ Alongside with the distinction between zoe and bios. -​ to zen vs eu zen (life vs. good life) -​ One meaning just simple life, the other being a good life. -​ We are political social animals. -​ zoe vs bios; “bare life” vs “social life” - we are zoon politicon (political animals) Other historical approaches to “sociological” -​ Famous political thinker machiavelli. Scheming, cunning, and trying to reflection on politics outsmart you. N. Machiavelli (d. 1527) -​ His most famous work: the prince. He wrote it as a guidebook for what  -​ No place for universal ethics makes a good leader, ruler. One that is efficient and effective. One of the key -​ Opportunities and threats taking advantage aspects discussed in the prince is that politics has no place for universalist -​ Not completely immoral: responsibility of the ethics. It is dangerous and too important to be jacketed by ethical concerns ruler for the security of citizens/subjects and dilemmas. There is no ethics in politics, only opportunities and threats. Take advantage of your opponent because if you don't, they will take advantage of you. -​ He's only doing immoral things to protect cities and life. Other historical approaches to “sociological” -​ What is the state of society before social bonds rail us in. We are essentially reflection on politics like animals in a state of competition. It's a dark world out there, eat or be T. Hobbes State of nature is a state of constant war of eaten, kill or be killed. We need society and law to make sure some sort of all against all - life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and public order- restrains the bad in our nature. Because we are evil by nature. short” (Hobbes 1651 in Shiraev and Zubok 2016) -​ His solution is that there needs to be some sort of sovereign above the law, to Human nature is inclined towards evil rather than good keep people in check.For example people make a contract with the king, “(1) competition (2) diffidence (3) glory” government, etc, in agreement to limit our freedom for the sake of public Therefore, an absolute sovereign is needed to keep safety. people in check, otherwise – incessant warfare and -​ For Hobbes, the sovereign is above the law, which can be prosecuted. This is threat to life and security a problem because later on we recognize the right to disobey immoral and unethical principles. For Hobbes that wasn't a consideration. He was only interested in keeping human nature that is evil, in check. Other historical approaches to “sociological” reflection on politics Members of the community submit themselves to the sovereign in the hope that s(he) will guarantee peace and because they live in constant fear and danger of violent conflict and death a type of social contract Leviathan (orig. 1651) Classical approaches to political sociology Pluralist theories Classical political and sociological theories can be broken into three main theories, No single overarching centre of political power in the 1.​ Pluralist theories; society a.​ They see power as dispersed. No one specific agent. Political power Power as dispersed and fragmented and there exists a is diffused and resides in many different agents in society. Not just balance of power in the society top to bottom, but rather dispersed. Power is exercised by a variety of social agents: State and non-state social institutions Individual citizens and citizen associations A. De Tocqueville and Democracy in America (1835) Religious organizations Social movements (Dobratz et al 2019: 11-14) Elite-managerial theories 2.​ Elite-managerial theories Power is largely concentrated in the hands of the elites a.​ They see the elites as the most important actors in a society. Power is who control vital social resources: wealth, social status, concentrated in their hands. influence (M. Weber) b.​ For MArx, it was the capital that signified power.  Vilfredo Pareto (1935) – military, educational and c.​ Weber: a more symbolic approach to power. financial elites rule the masses through “force and d.​ Pareto- identifies several different elite groups that rule the society fraud” (like foxes and lions the idea borrowed from through force and fraud. The ruler needs to be as cunning as a fox Macchiavelli’s The Prince) and as strong as a lion. Elites are like foxes and lions. Robert Michels (1915/1962) the “iron law of e.​ Michels- no matter how democratic an institution is at the beginning, oligarchy” from a complex and democratic sooner or later it falls into an oligarchy with power being more organization to an oligarchy of professional “managers” concentrated over time. He says this always happens in democracies. (Cf. Dobratz et al 2019: 16-17; Lipset 1959/1981, ch. 1) Social conflict or class theories. K. Marx 3.​ Social conflict or class theories: Karl Marx (1878) a.​ Also very popular in political sociology. Economic base vs political and cultural b.​ A few conflicts in society that aren't about power. Ultimately, many superstructure conflicts that happen in society are over power. Means, relations and forces of production c.​ The economic relations of production are the most important factor in society because we all need things to survive, so therefore the production of these amenities is the most important. Because thee are Bourgeoisie so important, for marx, how we get them is going to rule everything Proletariat alienation else. Social conflict or class theories. K. Marx. -​ Because we need things to survive, the economy is going to be the most Historical materialism important system. -​ Those who control the capital will hold the most power because you can't do -​ The processes of history and social change are anything without money. driven by economic imperatives. Social life -​ Its the economy that will basically rule everything else. reflects the economic conditions and the economy determines social life. -​ The way people organize their collective social and political life ultimately depends on and reflects economic conditions prevalent in the society (Baylis 2017) Social conflict or class theories. K. Marx -​ Essentially the government exists to protect the interest of the rich- marx. Political power exists in the interests of economic, -​ Because of the power that the ruling classes have, they are able to influence political and social elites the ideological sphere of the society, and ideas that justify the economic Political institutions, such as the state, become an conditions. instrument of oppression and serve the interests of the -​ For Marx the source of power was primarily economic. The economy and the powerful relations necessary for the upkeep of the economy determine the parameter The ruling elites have the capacity and resources to for everything else that happens in society. impose their ideology as the “norm” in the society and -​ The economy and the social relations that make the economy to maintain the status quo= hegemony possible become the focal source of power and conflict; where there are power resources there will sooner or later be conflict for access to that power and resource and for Marx that was a class conflict. Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) -​ Gramsci “reversed” Marx’s model, stating that Marx had grossly underestimated the importance of culture and politics (superstructure). -​ It is through cultural hegemony that the  oppressed classes can “retake society” (Steckley 2017) Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) -​ Spent a large part of his life in prison for his views based on Marx, politics, -​ Hegemony (Gramsci 1947) and power. -​ Ideology/dominant ideology/class -​ We owe to him two important concepts; consciousness (Steckley 2016) -​ 1. Hegemony: a Greek word, meaning dominance. A hegemonic -​ Change will not come through sudden position means you are the most important and strongest. revolutionary moments but through a slow -​ Gramsci uses it in the sense that; How is it that the marxism cultural change. revolution hasn't really taken over the world? (Marxism wasn't really a viable political system). -​ He came to the conclusion that Marx got it a little bit wrong. Marx said that the proletariat would rise up and overthrow the bourgeoisie as a result of exploitation. Gramsci paid more attention to the ideological sphere. Gramsci said it would make more sense to take over political institutions; by controlling norms. A more effective way of taking power to overthrow the dominant class. -​ Where marx gave economy the pride of place, for gramsci it was everything outside of the economy that made sense. The elites had the power because they controlled the dissemination of ideas. -​ Ideologies; serve the ideas of the dominant class, and the class just gobbles it up. -​ If you can convince people that you are right then you don't have to use violence because people will willingly follow you. -​ Marx says that the dominant ideas are always the ideas that dominate the ruling class; so he was not too far off from gramsci. Civil vs. political society The second concept we owe to him is: Civil society = ruled by consent 2. Civil society. -​ Education (schools, universities) ​ Ruled by consent. Doesn't use violence or force. It's governed because we -​ Media accept that these institutions are important. -​ Religious organizations ​ All those institutions comprise a civil society, ruled by consent of citizens. -​ Citizen associations, NGOs, human rights We agree that these institutions are crucial so we give them support. groups Civil vs. political society 2. Political society Political society= ruled by force ​ The world of politics -​ Government ​ Ruled by force: either by indirect or direct coercion. -​ Criminal Justice System ​ Historically whoever has had control of the media has had rival power. -​ Civil and political society reproduce hegemony ○​ The power to shape people's taste, opinions, and decisions. and “manufacture” consent (Noam Chomsky) The problem of class Weber: Class as a recurrent theme in sociology -​ Class is more about status, credentials, and education. Rather than the For Marx – economic economic status that marx says.  For Weber – more about status (influence) and Pierre Bordieux: credential/professional training -​ A more contemporary approach to class. Class as economic, social and cultural capital and symbolic violence Pierre Bourdieu Capital and class Pierre bordieux: Habitus -​ The reason his idea is important is because he thinks class is the major -​ classificatory schemes of perception and determinant of your chances and outcomes in life. appreciation that mediate the relationship -​ Whatever you are born into dictates your development chances for growth between the social structure and the and social mobility. This is because whenever you are born and raised into a motives/position taking of actors family, they shape your entire outlook in life and the capital that you can use -​ sits dead center at the intersection of to move up in society. agency/structure problem -​ Capital: the connections it has- social capital. Money of course. They also -​ Habitus is conditioned by our background and teach you the basic culture of society. You learn cultural literacy; the rules of socialization. the game in society. -​ More important your family shapes your HABITUS: -​ Not so much a habit as much as the entire set of ideas, preferences, and taste. All of those tastes preferences skills outlooks on life that makeup your world view and impact how you relate to the outside world. -​ That is why the class into which you are born is important; all of this is inherited. Any family that actually raises you. Capital and class -​ All three types of capital, as well as the habitus, are transmitted to people through the family= inheritance + socialization Hence, for Bourdieu, class is a crucial dimension affecting people’s social status, opportunity structures, and life outcomes But the “death of class”? (J. Pakulski) Contemporary theories in political sociology Culture vs. rational choice 2. Rational choice is more the political science angle. The rational-choice perspective. Culture and politics = specifically, cultural norms, -​ Look more at the impact of the state and their processes :elections, voting, values, belief systems, symbols, meanings for political etc. power; how culture influences politics (the “cultural turn” in Hicks et al 2005, Introduction; Inglehart 1997) Rational choice= politics as a function of rational calculations and actions by agents seeking to minimize risk and maximize gain or profit; the risk – reward –opportunity analysis (Dobratz et al. 2019; Hicks et al 2005) Institutionalist theories ​ Institutionalist theories examine: -​ Stable patterns of social organization (e.g. political institutions) how they are created and  maintained -​ How political processes are patterned by political beliefs, traditions, and values (Dobratz et al 2019: 28) Postmodern theories Questions the validity and existence of universal patterns of meaning and culture. General skepticism toward the universality of shared meaning as conveyed by signs. Meaning of concepts never fixed and stable Postmodern theories Michel Foucault, Discipline and punish. The birth of the prison (1977) Power as hidden and intertwined with knowledge the power of experts over “docile bodies” Power as surveillance and examination Social institutions as instruments of power (punishment).