Module 3-4 POSC 3111 Notes PDF

----------------------------MODULE 3---------------------------- STRUCTURE AND AGENCY BASICS ON STRUCTURE VERSUS AGENCY...

----------------------------MODULE 3---------------------------- STRUCTURE AND AGENCY BASICS ON STRUCTURE VERSUS AGENCY KEY DUALISM (OPPOSITION) DEFINITIONS Subjective Objective Structure Micro Macro o Refers to social, political, and economic frameworks that Individual Collective/society shape individual behavior Base Superstructure Agency Free will Determinism o The capacity of individuals to act independently and Ontology Epistemology make choices Action Theory System Theory Agency Structure KEY THEORIES (Theoretical Framework) Structuralism ANTHONY GIDDENS o Focuses on overarching structures that constrain actions British social theorist Agency Theory Theory of ‘structuration’ o Emphasizes individuals’ choice and actions o Solved problem of whether individual acts, or major social forces, shape society, by asserting that it is human IMPORTANCE IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS agency which continuously reproduces social structure. Understanding how each perspective influences political This relationship means individuals can bring change outcomes o In the 1998s, Giddens fashioned theory on how selves find meaning, and create narratives of identity, in modern STRUCTURE society. Characteristics Strengths o Often seen as deterministic o Social analysis mixing classic and modern o Includes institutions, norms, and cultural factors Risks Examples o Misguided postmodernism may attack o Political parties, electoral systems, and social Special Skills hierarchies o Appreciation of import of feminism AGENCY GIDDENS – OVERVIEW Characteristics Widely credited with “bringing power back in” sociology, o Focuses on individual autonomy and decision-making established Marx as a major player o Acknowledges the role of personal beliefs and Sociology is the study of modernity motivations Theoretical emphasis on institutions (“structures”) and their Examples relationship to systems (patterns of social interaction) o Grassroots movements, individual political leaders, and Tried to overcome 2 major divisions: voter behavior o Functionalism – Durkheim, Parsons o Interpretative Approach – Weber, Mead, Micro- THE INTERACTION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND AGENCY sociologists Dynamic Relationship o What are the di`erences? o Structure can enable or constrain agency Double hermeneutic: Sociologists interpret a world that is o Individuals can reshape structures through collective already interpreted by the people who live in it action Agency Illustrative Examples o Action o Civil rights movements: How individual agency led to o Unintended consequences and an unacknowledged structural changes condition Structure CASE STUDIES o Systems Case Study 1: Civil Rights Movement o Structure: Segregation laws and racial norms THEORY OF AGENCY 1 o Agency: Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and grassroots Temporality activism o Action is not a discrete phenomenon but a “continuous Case Study 2: Arab Spring flow of conduct” o Structure: Authoritarian regimes and socio-economic Context conditions o An action is always a “historically located mode of o Agency: Use of social media and youth activism activity” Reflexive Monitoring of Conduct IMPLICATIONS FOR POLITCAL ANALYSIS o “Intentionality is a process” and actors may or may not Understanding Outcomes be acting out consciously held beliefs or goals o Recognizing the importance of both structure and agency leads to a more nuanced analysis of political phenomena THEORY OF AGENCY 2 Policy Implications Rationalization of Action o Policymakers should consider structural factors while o Humans are capable of explaining their acts by providing also fostering individual and collective agency reasons for their conduct but the reasons they provide may or may not be directly linked to norms or CONCLUSION conventions Key Takeaways Motivational Components of Action o The interplay of structure and agency is essential for o Refers to the organization of an actors wants, straddle understanding political behavior conscious and unconscious aspects of cognition and o Both concepts should be integrated into political analysis emotion for comprehensive insights o Unacknowledged Conditions of action o Unintended consequences of action ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- o Social reproduction and social change STRUCTURE GIDDEN’S 2 Cents “Rules and Resources, organized as properties of social Existing dichotomies between social constraint on one hand, systems” and individual action on the other, are not useful o Rules = Norms, values Social determinism (Marx, Durkheim) is too simplistic: o Resources = material and non-material objects that Individual agency matters confer power or authority o Possible “derogation of the lay actor” Does not exist until the moment it is used To the micro-theorists: Focusing too much on individuals Structures that are “deeply layered” practices across time and obscures how structure matters. It also assumes that people are space are institutions constantly in the act of conscious interpretation – not true Structures must be studied in social/historical context, and To Foucault: You underestimate the significance and possibility through practice (Rules can only be comprehended through of human agency to change social systems their practice, actual use) THEORY OF STRUCTURATION SYSTEM Giddens rejects “counterposing structure and freedom” What “Reproduced relations between actors or collectivities, does this mean? organized as regular social practices” Structure is both enabling and constraining Social systems are systems of interaction – exist across time o Structure not a barrier to action, but involved in its and space production: Past always implicated in present To study social systems, we must study the ways in which its o Structure can enable new forms of agency component parts (its structures) produce and reproduce the “Structure performs personality and society simultaneously, but social order through patterns of human interaction in neither case exhaustively, because of the significance of unintended consequences and unacknowledged conditions” THE SOCIOLOGICAL PARADOX: SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND AGENCY While society constrains what we do, it does not determine what THEORY OF STRUCTURATION: DUALITY OF STRUCTURE we do Structures: codes or blueprints à STEERSàIndividual and o Society is not a rigid entity, composed of robots collective actions/behaviors o What people consider sacred, and therefore Individual and collective actions/behaviorsàREINFORCESà unchangeable, is a social construction that can be Structures: codes or blueprints reconstructed Unintended consequences and unacknowledged conditions of o Since social structures are created, they are imperfect, action can shape structure always in need of reform or transformation THEORY OF STRUCTURATION SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Depicted with temporal element A form of an ideology o Ideology: set of ideas that explains reality, provides guidelines for behavior, and expresses the interests of a group o It may be elaborate, or it may be narrowly aimed at one side or the other A social movement is a collective attempt to promote or resist change THE GREAT AGENCY-STRUCTURE DEBATES: How are individuals and TAKEAWAYS society related? Importance of human beings in constructing and reconstructing Marx society o Class shapes everything about our lives – it determines Implications our thoughts and actions o We do not have to be passive actors who accept society’s Durkheim institutional imperatives as inevitable o We are constrained by social norms and values – they o The personal is political create the roles that shape our behavior as parts of the Society’s structural arrangements are not inevitable collective whole that is society Weber o Institutional forms – like bureaucracies- can confine us to an “iron cage” but let’s not forget about verstehen – the way people interpret their worlds is important too The Micro-theorists o That Weber guy was onto something. Interpretation matters. Individual agents construct the world through perceptions and interactions – that’s what builds social systems. It happens from the “ground up,” in everyday life Foucault o You’re all missing the point entirely. With my theory of power, the old ways of thinking about agency fall apart. “individuals” are always, already a product od knowledge-power. We only have “subjectivity” through discourse, and bodies/desires are always being regulated by disciplinary power  ----------------------------MODULE 4---------------------------- ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES FOR CONCEPTUALIZING CHANGE INTRO TO CONTINUITY & DISCONTINUITY IMPORTANCE OF ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES Help map, understand, and implement changes e`ectively CONTINUITY Navigate uncertainty Definition Assist in forecasting the impact of changes o Refers to the aspects of political systems, institutions, Guide decision-making and resource allocation and behaviors that remain stable over time. It highlights Enhance adaptability and innovation the enduring features of political life, such as traditions, norms, and established practices ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 1: SYSTEMS THINKING Implications Definition o Stability o A holistic approach to analysis that focuses on how § Often reflects the stability of political systems. di`erent parts of a system interact and influence one Institutions like the judiciary, executive, and another legislative bodies may retain their functions Key components despite changes in leadership or policy o Feedback loops o Incremental Change o Emergent Properties § Political change may occur gradually, with shifts in o Interconnectedness policy or leadership that build on existing Application Example structures rather than radically altering them. This o Understanding how changes in one department a`ect perspective is useful in understanding reforms the overall performance of a company that are more evolutionary than revolutionary o Cultural Factors ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 2: SWOT ANALYSIS § Long-standing political cultures, identities, and Definition values can shape responses to change, leading to o A strategic tool to identify strengths, weaknesses, resistance against abrupt shifts opportunities, and threats Use in Conceptualizing Change DISCONTINUITY o Evaluating internal and external factors that may a`ect Definition change initiatives o Refers to significant breaks or changes in political Application Example systems, often resulting in shifts in power, ideology, or o Assessing the potential of new market opportunities policy. This includes revolutions, regime changes, or the while planning for organizational restructuring emergence of new political movements Implications ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 3: PESTLE ANALYSIS o Crisis and Transformation Definition § Discontinuity often arises in times of crisis, such o A framework for analyzing the macro-environmental as economic collapse, social upheaval, or factors: Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, external conflict, which can lead to dramatic and Environmental political changes Use in Conceptualizing Change o New Paradigms o Understanding how external factors impact the § Discontinuous changes can create new political organization and can lead to required changes paradigms, ideologies, or systems, fundamentally Application Example altering the landscape of governance and societal o Assessing regulatory shifts or technological organization advancements that influence strategic planning Agency and Contingency o Emphasizing discontinuity allows analysts to focus on ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 4: FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS the roles of individual and collective agency, highlighting Definition how leaders, movements, or unexpected event can o A technique for analyzing the forces for and against a reshape political realities particular change BALANCING CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY Key Components o Driving forces (factors supporting the change) Interconnectedness o Restraining forces (factors resisting the change) o Understanding how continuity can provide a foundation for discontinuous change. For instance, existing Application Example institutions may adapt to new realities rather than being o Understanding employee resistance to new technology completely overhauled and the forces pushing for its adoption Contextual Analysis ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 5: SCENARIO PLANNING o Political change should be examined within specific historical, cultural, and social contexts. What appears as Definition discontinuity in one context might be seen as continuity o A strategic tool used to anticipate possible future events in another by considering various “what if” scenarios Comparative Approaches Use in Conceptualizing Change o Comparing di`erent political systems can reveal how o Helps prepare for multiple potential futures and adjust some aspects remain constant while others undergo strategies accordingly significant change, enriching our understanding of Application Example political dynamics o Developing future strategies based on various potential market trends or political environments SUMMARY Political change is a complex interplay of continuity and discontinuity Analyzing both aspects helps scholars and practitioners grasp the nuances of political development, o`ering a more comprehensive picture of how societies evolve politically ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 6: GAP ANALYSIS àLIMITATIONS OF COMPARATIVE STATICS APPORACH Definition Key points o A method for comparing actual performance with o Ignores the dynamic process of how change happens potential or desired performance o Does not capture transitional phases or evolving factors Use in Conceptualizing Change o Focuses more on outcomes rather than causality or o Identifies gaps between current state and desired future mechanism of change state, helping to focus change e`orts Application Example DIACHRONIC APPROACH o Identifying skill gaps in the workforce before Definition implementing new technologies o Analyzes political change over time, focusing on the process and trajectory of political evolution ANALYTICAL APPROACHES TO POLITICAL CHANGE Key Characteristics Overview o Studies how systems, structures, and institutions evolve o Political change is complex, requiring various methods to o Take historical development and transitions into account analyze and understand it Application Example o This presentation cover three key approaches: Snapshot, o Analyzing the gradual shift from authoritarianism to Comparative Statics, and Diachronic democracy in a country, with emphasis on the sequence Objectives of the presentation of events and processes that led to the change o Explore the core concepts of these approaches o Discuss their application in political analysis àSTRENGTHS OF DIACHRONIC Key points SNAPSHOT APPROACH o Provides a comprehensive view of political change over Definition time o A method that captures a “frozen moment” in time, o Captures the dynamics, causes, and mechanism of analyzing the political situation as it exists at a single change point o E`ective for understanding long-term trends and gradual Key characteristics developments o Static analysis (no consideration of past of future events) o Focus on a specific moment in the political process àLIMITATIONS OF DIACHRONIC o Often used to describe the status quo Key points Application Example o Can be complex and time-consuming due to the focus on o Studying a country’s political system during an election historical details day without considering the events that led to or follow it o Hard to pinpoint specific moments of change within the broader context and sequence of events àSTRENTHS OF THE SNAPSHOT APPROACH Key points COMPARING THE THREE APPROACHES o Provides clear, detailed analysis of a single moment or Snapshot Approach event o Focuses on a single moment without regard for history or o Useful for policy analysis or electoral outcomes future o Allows deep focus on specific conditions at a point in Comparative Statics Approach time o Compares two or more points in time to understand the outcomes of change àLIMITATIONS OF THE SNAPSHOT APPROACH Diachronic Approach Key points o Focuses on the historical process, looking at how and o Ignores historical context or future developments why political changes occur over time o Does not explain how or why political changes occur o Can lead to oversimplified conclusions WHEN TO USED EACH APPROACH Snapshot Approach COMPARATIVE STATICS APPROACH o Best for analyzing specific events or moments, like Definitions elections or policy decisions o Compares two or more “snapshots” of a political system Comparative Statics Approach at di`erent points in time to understand the changes o E`ective for understanding the results of a change or between them comparing di`erent stages in a political process Key Characteristics Diachronic Approach o Analysis focuses on changes from on equilibrium (or o Ideal for studying long-term political transitions and political condition) to another understanding the evolution of systems o Ignores the process of change, focusing instead on the outcomes of change CHALLENGES IN CONCEPTUALIZING CHANGE Application Example Common Challenges o Comparing the political landscape before and after a o Resistance to change significant policy reform without analyzing the transition o Uncertainty in future outcomes process o Complexity of interconnected factors Strategies to Overcome àSTRENGTHS OF COMPARATIVE STATICS APPROACH o Communication and engagement with stakeholder Key points o Flexibility in planning o Useful for understanding end results of political change o Continuous monitoring and adjustment o Provides insight into the impact of policies, reforms, or regime changes o Can highlight di`erences and key factors driving change INTEGRATING ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES Why integration is key o Combining multiple analytical tools provides a comprehensive understanding of change o A holistic approach reduces blind spots and enhances strategic planning Example o Using SWOT and PESTLE together to evaluate both internal capabilities and external environmental factors CONCLUSION Each approach o`ers unique insights into political change Snapshot provides a momentary view, Comparative Statics focuses on outcomes, and Diachronic delves into the process of change. Analytical strategies provide frameworks to conceptualize change e`ectively. Applying the right strategy helps organizations anticipate and respond to changes proactively. KEY TAKEAWAYS Understanding political change requires choosing the appropriate method depending on the context and scope of analysis. Choose strategies based on the specific context and nature of change. Regularly review and adjust plans as changes unfold.