Soc Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

Agency Definition: The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices. Culture Definition: The shared beliefs, values, norms, practices, symbols, and behaviors that are passed down through generations within a society. Structure Definition: The social institutions,...

Agency Definition: The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices. Culture Definition: The shared beliefs, values, norms, practices, symbols, and behaviors that are passed down through generations within a society. Structure Definition: The social institutions, organizations, and systems that create a framework within which individuals live and interact. This includes patterns of behavior shaped by these institutions. Sociological Imagination Definition: The ability to see the connection between personal experiences and larger social forces, recognizing how society shapes individual behavior and vice versa. Personal Troubles vs. Social Issues Personal Troubles: Private problems that affect individuals directly, stemming from personal choices or situations (e.g., losing a job due to personal reasons).​ Social Issues: Public problems that affect a large group of people within society, shaped by the larger social structure (e.g., unemployment caused by economic recession). The Nested Model A theoretical model for understanding how individuals and society interact, where: ​ Self: The individual identity. ​ Interaction: The process by which individuals engage with others. ​ Socialization: The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize social norms and roles. ​ Roles: Expectations and behaviors assigned to individuals based on their social position. ​ Groups: Collections of individuals with shared roles and identities. ​ Social Inequality: The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities across different groups. ​ Social Institutions: Organized structures in society (e.g., education, family, government, religion) that guide behavior and societal functioning. ​ Culture: The shared values, beliefs, and norms that emerge from the social institutions. ​ Society: The larger community that consists of individuals, institutions, and cultures. Symbolic Interactionism Definition: A sociological perspective that focuses on the meanings people attach to social interactions, symbols, and behaviors. Conflict Theory Definition: A perspective that views society as a struggle for power between different groups, particularly those with conflicting interests (e.g., rich vs. poor, employer vs. employee). Structural Functionalism Definition: A theoretical framework that views society as a complex system made up of interrelated parts, each contributing to social stability and functioning. ***Social Facts Definition: Durkheim’s term for the external, objective structures and norms that influence individual behavior, such as laws, morals, and religious beliefs. ***Social Solidarity Definition: The cohesion and unity that binds a society or group together. ***Collective Conscience Definition: The shared beliefs and values that serve as a moral foundation for society. ***Mechanical Solidarity Definition: Social cohesion based on shared beliefs, values, and similarities, often seen in small, traditional societies. ***Organic Solidarity Definition: depending on people to get things done. Repressive and Restitutive Law ​ Repressive Law: Punitive laws aimed at maintaining order by punishing offenders. ​ Restitutive Law: Laws designed to restore equilibrium after an offense, often through restitution or compensation. Means of Production Definition: The physical, non-human elements (such as land, tools, machinery) used in the production of goods and services. Bourgeoisie and Proletariat ​ Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class that owns the means of production. ​ Proletariat: The working class, who sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages. Relations of the Means of Production Definition: The social relationships that exist between the people involved in the production process (e.g., employer-employee relationships). ***Exploitation and Alienation ​ Exploitation: The process by which the bourgeoisie profits from the labor of the proletariat, often by paying them less than the value they produce. ​ Alienation: The feeling of disconnection or powerlessness experienced by workers in capitalist societies, due to their lack of control over the production process. ***Superstructure and Base ​ Base: The economic foundation of society, including the means of production and relations of production. ​ Superstructure: The cultural, political, and ideological institutions that are shaped by the base. Class Consciousness and False Consciousness ​ Class Consciousness: The awareness of one’s social class and its interests, particularly the proletariat’s understanding of their position in the capitalist system. ​ False Consciousness: A situation where the working class fails to recognize their exploitation, often due to ideology that obscures their true interests. The Stage of the Social Self Stage 1: The preparatory stage: imitation Stage 2: The play stage (taking the role of the significant other) Stage 3: The game stage (taking the role of multiple others and the generalized other) The Thomas Theorem Definition: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” This means that people act based on their perceptions of reality, whether or not those perceptions are accurate. The Looking-Glass Self Definition: A concept by Charles Horton Cooley that suggests we develop our self-concept based on how we believe others perceive us. ​ Three Stages: 1.​ We imagine how we appear to others. 2.​ We imagine their judgment of us. 3.​ We develop feelings about ourselves based on these perceived judgments. Inductive vs. Deductive Research ​ Deductive: A top-down approach that starts with a theory or hypothesis and tests it through data collection. ​ Inductive: A bottom-up approach where research begins with observations, patterns, or data, leading to the development of a theory. Survey Definition: A research method involving the use of questionnaires or interviews to collect data, often from a large sample. Participant Observation Definition: A qualitative research method where the researcher immerses themselves in the community or group they are studying, participating in daily activities to gather firsthand insights. Experiment Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research ​ Quantitative: Research that involves numerical data and statistical analysis. ​ Qualitative: Research that involves non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations, focused on understanding meaning and experiences. Independent, Dependent, and Controlled Variables  ​ Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment. ​ Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured or affected in response to the independent variable. ​ Controlled Variable: Variables that are kept constant to prevent them from influencing the results. Association Definition: Association refers to the relationship or connection between two or more variables. In sociology, this often means that when one variable changes, another variable tends to change in some way, but without implying causality Time-Order Definition: Time order refers to the sequence in which events or variables occur Non-Spuriousness Definition: A situation in which two variables are genuinely correlated, without being caused by an external, intervening variable. Spurious Correlation Definition: A false relationship between two variables that is caused by an external factor, making the correlation appear stronger than it is. The Belmont Report Definition: A set of ethical guidelines for conducting research involving human subjects, emphasizing respect for persons, beneficence (doing good), and justice. Causality Definition: The relationship between two variables where one directly causes the other to change. Sample and Population Correlation vs. Causation ​ Correlation: A relationship between two variables, but one does not necessarily cause the other. ​ Causation: A direct cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.