Sociology 300 Midterm Study Guide PDF

Quiz: Sociology 300 Midterm Study Guide Part 1: Conceptual Questions 1. What are the characteristics of a good sociological research question? ○ Answer: A good sociological research question is clear, focused, researchable, and significant. It addresses a specific...

Quiz: Sociology 300 Midterm Study Guide Part 1: Conceptual Questions 1. What are the characteristics of a good sociological research question? ○ Answer: A good sociological research question is clear, focused, researchable, and significant. It addresses a specific sociological issue, is feasible to investigate within the constraints of time and resources, and contributes to existing literature by filling a gap or addressing a new aspect of a known issue. 2. What were Merton’s four scientific norms, and how do they limit the extent to which bias influences the social science research process? ○ Answer: Merton’s four scientific norms are: Universalism: Scientific claims must be evaluated based on impersonal criteria. Communism: Scientific knowledge must be shared collectively. Disinterestedness: Scientists should act for the benefit of the common scientific enterprise, rather than for personal gain. Organized Skepticism: All scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny. These norms limit bias by promoting objectivity, transparency, and critical evaluation in research. 3. Explain the difference between structural and institutional explanations for the persistence of bias in social scientific studies. ○ Answer: Structural explanations focus on broader societal structures, such as economic systems, social hierarchies, and power relations, that perpetuate bias. Institutional explanations look at the internal rules, policies, and cultures of organizations and institutions that contribute to biased practices and outcomes. 4. What is a concept, and what is conceptualization? How does the role of conceptualization differ in deductive vs. inductive studies? ○ Answer: A concept is an abstract idea that represents phenomena in the social world. Conceptualization is the process of defining and clarifying these concepts. In deductive studies, conceptualization occurs early, often before data collection, as part of hypothesis formulation. In inductive studies, it occurs after data collection, during the data analysis phase, as patterns and themes emerge. 5. What does it mean that sociological concepts must vary? ○ Answer: Sociological concepts must vary in the sense that they should be able to take on different values or categories, enabling researchers to measure and compare them across different contexts, populations, or time periods. Part 2: Measurement and Sampling 6. What is a measure/indicator, and what is operationalization? ○ Answer: A measure or indicator is a specific method or tool used to quantify a concept. Operationalization is the process of defining how a concept will be measured, specifying the procedures and instruments used to collect data on that concept. 7. What are the four levels of measurement, and how are they different? ○ Answer: The four levels of measurement are: Nominal: Categories without a specific order (e.g., gender, race). Ordinal: Categories with a specific order but no fixed intervals (e.g., education level). Interval: Ordered categories with fixed intervals but no true zero point (e.g., temperature in Celsius). Ratio: Ordered categories with fixed intervals and a true zero point (e.g., income, age).  8. What distinguishes cross-sectional, cross-sectional trend, and panel surveys? ○ Answer: Cross-sectional surveys collect data at a single point in time from different individuals. Cross-sectional trend surveys collect data at multiple points in time from different individuals, allowing trend analysis. Panel surveys collect data from the same individuals at multiple points in time, enabling analysis of changes within individuals over time. 9. What is sampling bias, and how can it be avoided? ○ Answer: Sampling bias occurs when certain members of the target population are systematically excluded or overrepresented in the sample, leading to unrepresentative results. It can be avoided by using random sampling techniques, ensuring every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. 10. Define independent, dependent, mediating, and moderating variables. ○ Answer: Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable. Mediating Variable: A variable that explains the mechanism through which the independent variable affects the dependent variable. Moderating Variable: A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Quiz: Sociology 300 Midterm Study Guide Part 3: Survey Research 11. What are the strengths and weaknesses of survey research? ○ Answer: Strengths: Surveys can collect data from a large number of respondents quickly and cost-effectively. They are flexible and can cover a wide range of topics. Standardized questions ensure consistency in responses, making data analysis easier. Weaknesses: Surveys may suffer from low response rates, leading to nonresponse bias. They rely on self-reported data, which can be subject to recall bias and social desirability bias. Poorly designed questions can lead to misinterpretation. 12. Under what conditions are closed-ended survey items ideal? Under what conditions are open-ended survey items ideal? ○ Answer: Closed-ended items are ideal when the researcher needs quantifiable data, consistency in responses, and ease of analysis. They are best used when the range of possible answers is known and limited. Open-ended items are ideal when exploring new topics, capturing detailed and nuanced responses, and allowing respondents to express their thoughts freely. They are useful for qualitative analysis and gaining insights into complex issues. 13. What causes missing data in survey research? Why is missing data often a problem for researchers?  ○ Answer: Missing data can be caused by respondent refusal, forgetfulness, or misunderstanding questions. It is a problem because it can lead to biased results if the missing data are not random. It reduces the statistical power of the study and complicates data analysis and interpretation. Part 4: Sampling 14. What distinguishes a sample from a census? How does this distinction relate to a target population? ○ Answer: A sample is a subset of the target population selected for the study, while a census includes every member of the target population. The distinction is important because samples aim to represent the target population accurately, allowing researchers to make inferences about the whole population without studying everyone. 15. What is a unit of analysis, and why is it important to correctly specify a unit of analysis? ○ Answer: The unit of analysis is the primary entity being analyzed in a study (e.g., individuals, groups, institutions). It is important to specify it correctly to ensure the research questions, hypotheses, and analysis methods align with the data being collected, preventing invalid conclusions 16. What are common non-probability sampling techniques? What are common probability sampling techniques? ○ Answer: Non-probability sampling techniques: Convenience sampling, quota sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling. Probability sampling techniques: Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling 17. What are the necessary conditions for a sample to be truly representative of its target population? What is sampling bias? ○ Answer: For a sample to be truly representative, it must be randomly selected, have an adequate size, and reflect the diversity of the target population. Sampling bias occurs when some members of the population are systematically excluded or overrepresented, leading to unrepresentative results. Part 5: Variables and Analysis 18. How do mediating and moderating variables affect the interpretation of how an independent variable affects a dependent variable? ○ Answer: Mediating variables explain the process through which the independent variable affects the dependent variable, providing insight into the underlying mechanism. Moderating variables influence the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, indicating that the effect may differ under different conditions or among different groups. Part 6: Application Questions 19. Identify a research question from a body of sociological text (even if the research question is not directly stated). ○ Answer: This would require a specific sociological text to demonstrate. Generally, a research question can be inferred by identifying the main focus or objective of the study as described in the introduction or literature review. 20. Use a body of sociological text to identify how a project contributes to existing scholarship on the topic. This is the “gap in the literature” question.  ○ Answer: This requires identifying what previous studies have covered and what gaps remain. The new project should address these gaps, either by offering new insights, using different methodologies, or exploring under-researched areas. 21. Distinguish between independent, dependent, mediating, and moderating variables. ○ Answer: Independent Variable: The cause or treatment. Dependent Variable: The effect or outcome. Mediating Variable: The mechanism through which the independent variable affects the dependent variable. Moderating Variable: The variable that changes the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 22. Identify a study’s unit of analysis. ○ Answer: This requires examining what or who is being studied in the research, whether it is individuals, groups, organizations, or social artifacts. 23. Identify and state a hypothesis according to research conventions. ○ Answer: A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, "Increasing levels of education are associated with higher income levels." 24. Determine whether a study design is driven by inductive or deductive logic. ○ Answer: Inductive logic: Begins with observations and develops a theory. Deductive logic: Begins with a theory or hypothesis and tests it through observations. 25. Distinguish between the processes of conceptualization and operationalization. Understand how the two processes relate. ○ Answer: Conceptualization: Defining what a concept means. Operationalization: Determining how to measure the concept. Relation: Conceptualization provides the theoretical definition, while operationalization provides the empirical method for measurement. 26. Provide a realistic operationalization of a concept. ○ Answer: For the concept of "social capital," operationalization might involve measuring the number of social networks, frequency of interactions within these networks, and the resources accessible through these networks. 27. Distinguish between a good and weak measure/indicator (in reference to a well-defined or widely understood concept). ○ Answer: Good measure: Reliable, valid, and accurately captures the concept. Weak measure: Unreliable, invalid, and fails to fully capture the concept. 28. Identify the appropriateness of a survey indicator/measure. Evaluate whether a survey item is a useful way of measuring a concept (relative to other types of indicators/measures). ○ Answer: This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the survey item, as well as its relevance and sensitivity in measuring the intended concept compared to other available measures. 29. Identify and interpret survey data in spreadsheet form. ○ Answer: This would involve reading and analyzing data presented in tables or graphs, understanding descriptive statistics, and possibly conducting further statistical tests to interpret the findings. 30. Identify and accurately describe a study’s target population. ○ Answer: The target population is the entire group of individuals or entities to which the researchers want to generalize their findings. Accurate description includes specifying the demographic, geographic, and temporal characteristics of this group. 31. Distinguish between confirmation, measurement, and sample bias. ○ Answer: Confirmation bias: The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs. Measurement bias: Systematic errors in how variables are measured. Sample bias: Systematic errors in how samples are selected. 32. Interpret regression coefficients for continuous or binary dependent variables. ○ Answer: Regression coefficients indicate the direction and magnitude of the relationship between the independent variable(s) and the dependent variable. For continuous dependent variables, the coefficient represents the change in the dependent variable for a one-unit change in the independent variable. For binary dependent variables, it represents the change in the log odds of the dependent variable occurring.