SNE3142 Educational Approaches and Resources for Learners with Special Educational Needs PDF

**SNE3142** **Educational Approaches and Resources for Learners with Special Educational Needs** **Prof. Evariste Karangwa** **School of Inclusive & Special Needs - College of Education** **University of Rwanda** **\ ** **Educational Approaches and Resources for Learners with Special Education...

**SNE3142** **Educational Approaches and Resources for Learners with Special Educational Needs** **Prof. Evariste Karangwa** **School of Inclusive & Special Needs - College of Education** **University of Rwanda** **\ ** **Educational Approaches and Resources for Learners with Special Educational Needs** This module aims to provide students with theoretical and practical knowledge in varying teaching and learning approaches and provisions that apply to learners with different special educational needs. It will guide into an inquiry and discussions focused on the special needs of learners with sensory, physical, neural, social, emotional and other challenges in Rwandan educational contexts. The teaching, learning and assessment approaches discussed will both focused on specific needs and on the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approaches, but will prioritize most importantly on the child-cantered approaches. It will inspire the students to conceive designs and applications of educational approaches and resources that are applicable to varying learner's needs and abilities in inclusive educational settings, including use of assistive technologies, augmentative and alternative communication devices and others, etc\.... **Approaches and Strategies in education** Students are able to access and participate in inclusive educational programs that maximize their engagement, recognize their differences and connect to the real world when teachers employ the appropriate teaching strategies or methods. Teaching Methods ================ The term **Teaching method** refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies used for classroom instruction. Your choice of teaching method depends on what fits you --- your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission statement. Teaching theories primarily fall into two categories or "approaches": **teacher-centered and student-centered.** Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning ------------------------------------- Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as "empty vessels" whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments. Student-Centered Approach to Learning ------------------------------------- While teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher's primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessment are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction. To better understand these approaches, it is important to discuss what is generally understood as the three main teaching styles in educational pedagogy: **direct instruction, inquiry-based learning and cooperative learning.** Through these three teaching methods, teachers can gain a better understanding of how to govern their classroom, implement instruction and connect with their students. Within each of these three main teaching styles are teaching roles or "models": **Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and Delegator**. The fundamentals of each teaching style, is best viewed through the lens of **direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, and cooperative teaching**. Direct Instruction ------------------ Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching strategy that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led demonstrations. Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the **teacher-centered approach**, in that teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information. Direct instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas. Inquiry-based Learning ---------------------- Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that focuses on student investigation and hands-on learning. In this method, the teacher's primary role is that of a **facilitator**, providing guidance and support for students through the learning process. Inquiry-based learning falls under the **student-centered approach**, in that students play an **active and participatory role** in their own learning process. Cooperative Learning -------------------- Cooperative Learning refers to a method of teaching and classroom management that emphasizes group work and a strong sense of community. This model fosters students' academic and social growth and includes teaching techniques such as "Think-Pair-Share" and reciprocal teaching. Cooperative learning falls under the **student-centered approach** because learners are placed in responsibility of their learning and development. This method focuses on the belief that students **learn best when working with and learning from their peers.**  In order to identify your personal teaching style, it is important to acknowledge your personal values toward education and how your students learn. Understanding your teaching style early on will prove effective for both you and your students, creating and maintaining a balance between your teaching preferences and your students' learning preferences. ### Different Methods and Approaches "A thousand teachers, a thousand methods." Chinese Proverb INTRODUCTION TEACHING APPROACH: It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of learning which is translated into the classroom. TEACHING STRATEGY It is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. TEACHING METHOD: It is a systematic way of doing something. It implies an orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more procedural. TEACHING TECHNIQUE It is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task. In summary, approaches vary in the degree of teacher and learner engagement, focus, number of learners involved in the teaching-learning process as shown in the diagram below: Engagement Teacher Learner Focus Subject Matter Learner Number Individual Group **EXAMPLES OF TEACHING APPROACHES** 1. TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH The teacher is perceived to be the only reliable source of information in contrast to the learner-centered approach. LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH In which it is premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource because he/she too knows something and is therefore capable of sharing something. 2. SUBJECT MATTER-CENTERED APPROACH Subject matter gains primacy over that of the learner. TEACHER DOMINATED APPROACH In this approach, only the teacher's voice is heard. He/she is the sole dispenser of information. 3. INTERACTIVE APPROACH In this approach, an interactive classroom will have more student talk and less teacher talk. Students are given the opportunity to interact with teacher and with other students. CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH The students are expected to construct knowledge and meaning out for what they are taught by connecting them to prior experience. 4. BANKING APPROACH The teacher deposits knowledge into the "empty" minds of students for students to commit to memory. 5. INTEGRATED APPROACH It makes the teacher connects what he/she teaches to other lessons of the same subject (intra-disciplinary) or connects his/her lessons with other subjects thus making his/her approach interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary. 6. DISCIPLINAL APPROACH It limits the teacher to discussing his/her lessons within the boundary of his/her subject. 7. COLLABORATIVE APPROACH It will welcome group work, teamwork, partnerships, and group discussion. 8. INDIVIDUALISTIC APPROACH It wants the individual students to work by themselves. DIRECT TEACHING APPROACH The teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be taught. 9. INDIRECT,GUIDED APPROACH The teacher guides the learner to discover things for himself/herself. The teacher facilitates the learning process by allowing the learner to be engaged in the learning process with his/her guidance. 10. RESEARCH-BASED APPROACH As the name implies, teaching and learning are anchored on research findings. 11. WHOLE CHILD APPROACH The learning process itself takes into account not only the academic needs of the learners, but also their emotional, creative, psychological, spiritual, and developmental needs. 12. METACOGNITIVE APPROACH The teaching process brings the learner to the process of thinking about thinking. The learner reflects on what he learned and on his/her ways of learning. 13. PROBLEM-BASED APPROACH As the name implies, the teaching- learning process is focused on problems. Time is spent on analyzing and solving problems. **\ ** **Specific Teaching approaches** A. **Visually Impaired Children** Visual impaired children are faced with classroom instructions challenges in a sense that it is difficult for them to access materials namely textbooks, maps, videos, demonstrations, written exams and assignments, etc. A large part of traditional learning is visual; therefore, children with a visual impairment require alternative methods of instruction including a variety of accommodations, equipments, and compensatory strategies based upon their varying needs. Consequently, they will need special skills in using alternative strategies, and specialized equipment and materials to communicate effectively. These children vary considerably: some have no vision; others are able to see large forms; and others can see print if magnified. In this work we are going to present the educational difficulties and we will suggest and describe the appropriate educational approaches. Furthermore, we will make a description of appropriate environment and educational resources for the smooth running of their teaching and learning activities. 1. **Overview on Visual Impairment** According to Virginia (1996) visual impairment occurs when any part of the optical system is defective, diseased, or malfunctions. If the visual impairment is the result of a defective part or parts, it is usually present at birth (congenital). These include missing parts namely the absence of an iris; absence of the eyes themselves, defective systems such as dislocation of the lens; holes in the retina; drainage systems that are stopped up; and hereditary conditions such as refractive errors due to eyeballs that are too short or too long; improperly shaped corneas; albinism. Diseases can be pre-natal e.g., insult to the fetus in uterus, at birth or post natal e.g., damage shortly thereafter, or adventitious i.e. acquired later, e.g., diseases that develop gradually such as diabetes and some types of retinal diseases. Malfunctions can be due to defective parts or, secondarily, to body diseases such as rubella. There are hundreds of eye problems and combinations of problems located in the optical system itself. The eye specialist (ophthalmologist/optometrist) is qualified to identify or diagnose these problems, and the VI Teacher can interpret what they mean and how they relate to educational programming. A visual impairment can also occur when the central nervous system is damaged, since the brain not only governs and coordinates the optical system but also interprets (i.e. processes) the visual stimuli sent to it by the eyes. Sometimes this brain-based disability is mild for instance poor visual perception and sometimes it is severe that is cortical visual impairment, or CVI. Vision impairments can result from a variety of causes, including congenital conditions, injury, eye disease, and brain trauma, or as the result of other conditions such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis (efferent blood vessels from the heart, conveying blood away from the heart regardless of oxygenation status). 2. **Categories of Visual Impairments** Categories of visual impairments reflect more than just visual perception. Students' ability to use vision, as well as how much they use other senses for learning, are aspects of each category (Bishop, 1996). The terms *low vision, functionally blind,* and *blind* are often used to describe and categorize levels of vision. Each category is considered in terms of the degree of perception and its implications for students' learning. ***Low Vision:*** Generally, students with low vision are able to learn using their visual sense; however, they may need to have print magnified, contrast enhanced, or type font or size changed (Turnbull et al., 2002). Students in this category characteristically work more slowly and experience difficulty working with details (Colenbrander in Barraga & Erin, 1992). ***Functional Blindness:*** People with functional blindness typically use a combination of modalities to function within their surroundings (Turnbull et al., 2002). Students in this category generally read and write using Braille. Some functionally blind individuals have sufficient vision to allow them to move around the classroom safely. Others, however, may require considerable accommodations to do so. ***Blindness:*** Near blindness and total blindness are included in this category. Near blindness occurs when visual acuity is reduced so greatly that learning takes place using data from other senses most of the time (Colenbrander in Barraga & Erin, 1992). Students with total blindness receive no stimuli from their visual channel. They depend entirely on input from other senses. 3. **Educational Difficulties** The greatest challenges most children with visual impairment face are difficulties in mobility that is moving around independently. The way buildings and school compounds are set for instance when containing stairs, holes, constitute a barrier for their movement. Physical orientation of students to classroom routines or other events that take place during the day is important and must occur as soon as possible once the student is assigned to the classroom (Penny and Mary, 2001) Furthermore, children with visual impairments encounter difficulties in understanding and using non-verbal communication namely facial expressions and body language, and difficulties with written communication because most of their peers read and write regular ink print. Their educational difficulties include also missing letters and jumping lines while reading, which has an impact in understanding the content or the message of the text. Children with visual impairment get tired easily while performing a visual task. Ndurumo (1993) asserts that learners with loss of sight in mainstream schools experience a number of difficulties. These learners find themselves in a strange world where they seem to be strangers among their sighted peers who in most cases are the majority and lack awareness on visual impairment. In most cases, the blind learners are largely obliged to learn by listening and occasionally by touch. Sometimes, they are ignored by their overloaded teachers. According to Barraga (1993), learners with visual loss are also faced with a problem of reading suitable textbooks and writing in Braille which is their media of reading and writing. These make the curriculum look overcrowded. Subjects that involve a lot of movement for example games and physical education present special problems to individual learners, who have difficulty in free movement. A shy learner who is blind easily misses a great deal of incidental benefits that come from ordinary school life. Most special teachers available are few in regular schools, and already overloaded with the regular curriculum; hence concentrating on learners with visual loss becomes a problem. In the classroom situation these makes learners with visual loss setback behind in academics (Scholl, 1986). Learners with visual impairments who are totally blind have difficulty in making lasting friendship due to lack of non-verbal communication. This strongly affects learners' functioning. The attitude of others has significant impact on the learners' psychological and social adjustment (Murugami, 2004). The lack of connectedness with other learners may cause poor performance and the learners may feel neglected which sometimes lead to dropping out. Several difficulties confront the partially sighted students that do not affect the blind student. For instance, the partially sighted student is sometimes viewed by faculty member and classmates as faking it. Faculty and staff members may have difficulty believing that partially sighted students need access to printed material because most of these students do not use canes for travel and are able to get around like everyone else. Also, depending on the nature of the vision loss, these students may not be able to read other people's visual cues, so they sometimes appear expressionless and seem uninterested when quite the opposite might be true. In this case, their needs are neglected and are not able to enjoy their schooling. 4. **Educational Approaches** **4.1. Teaching and Learning accommodations** Students with visual impairments lack opportunities for incidental learning that occur for their sighted peers almost constantly (Hatlen & Curry, 1987). Without such opportunities, associating words with elements of the environment is difficult. Thus, it is important that such associations be supplemented with input from other senses and through alternative activities. The limited nature of visual associations for students with visual impairments has classroom implications. Absence of or reduced visual cues, such as a schedule written on the chalkboard or seeing the clock, can prevent these students from following classroom procedures or anticipating coming events. Students need opportunities to become acquainted with their classmates. Because students with visual impairments may not readily associate names and faces through incidental classroom experiences, teachers need to design appropriate experiences to help build relationships among all students in a class, added Penny and Mary (2001). Students who are blind or visually impaired will most likely need instructional adaptations to many if not all areas of the curriculum. When instructing students, it can be helpful to break tasks into parts and provide wait time to allow independence and support when needed. Allow the student to learn through mistakes. The student who is blind or visually impaired will need assistance to be included in all the school activities. Learners who are blind or visually impaired will need consideration to ensure they can participate fully in the classroom instruction. Teachers will need to collaborate to ensure that the students' unique visual needs are met. A learner with visual impairment experiences difficult in access to educational experiences example reading words without extra help to make him or her understand what those words mean. Names of animals and objects can be easily read by a blind learner but without the real object or embraced diagram/ models, the leaner may not make sense of vocabulary read. (Lydia, 2014) Real-life examples of pictures or actual objects are used in instruction, for example, real plants are provided when pictures of plants are shown in a book. Models of objects that are primarily visual are used, such as objects rather than pictures. Sam (2016) argues that when people have extreme difficulty seeing something they must use their other senses to gain an understanding of objects and their surroundings. Being able to touch something is their lifeline, Pistillo said. "Because with maths, for instance, other kids might see a picture of four ducks and two ducks, but we have to make sure they can touch those four ducks and two ducks-it is very tactile" (Postillo cited by Sam, 2016). - Provide opportunities to practice and reinforce skills in natural settings throughout the day. Repetition is necessary for the student to master new skills. - Use tactile, concrete and real life material as much as possible, tactile learning provides sensation of touch on the skin. - Activities should be task analyzed and broken down into steps so that each step can be taught sequentially. -  Provide opportunities for the student to be with students who do not have disabilities for purposes of modeling their behavior. - Keeping instructions brief and uncomplicated as much as possible. When repeating instruction, repeat exactly without paraphrasing. - Use more than one way to demonstrate or explain information. Hand-outs must be provided in advance of lecture and allow audio-taping where possible to assist review of note. Learners with visual impairment are provided with more easily readable visual aids: The child receives his or her own copy of information that will be displayed on an overhead or whiteboard or chalkboard. **Peer (classmate) note taker can also help. In fact a classmate takes notes of material written on the board and provides a copy to the student with visual impairments.** Extra time for responses in class should be granted because the child may take time to respond to class discussions because he or she needs more time to read an exercise. Writing must be verbalized. In fact, information that is being presented on a whiteboard or in an overhead is spoken aloud as it is being written. Provide appropriate written and verbal descriptions to accompany any visual aids, diagrams, films, or videos that you might use in class. Furthermore, oral descriptions are provided of visual display material; for example, an exhibition of fine art would be described, or portions of a video or film would be narrated during times when there is no dialog. When using technical terms, remember to spell them out or give descriptions if appropriate. Try to speak directly to the class, remembering that turning your head away can muffle or silence sound; body language and gestures cannot be seen. Note that appropriate seating is important for a visually impaired student; since the student cannot see visual cues, he or she needs to be seated in a position to receive verbal cues. **4.2 Assignments and Testing Accommodations** **The learner may need extra time because he or she reads or writes slowly, or because of the tools he or she uses for reading or writing. He/she may provide a written description of a task instead of a visual representation. For example, the class assignment might be to make a drawing of a cell viewed through a microscope. The student who is blind instead provides a written description of the cell rather than a drawing.** - **The learner may respond through practical works to demonstrate understanding, rather than responding in writing to a question.** - **Screen access to tests administered on a computer: Depending on the children's needs to read in print or braille, appropriate screen access to text may be needed through enlarged text, refreshable braille, or a copy of the test in hardcopy braille.** - Clear directions are given using explicit language such as when giving instructions; such as pass your papers to the right, rather than \"over here.\" The academic curriculum appropriate for students with visual impairments is determined by their cognitive abilities. The goals and objectives set for students *without* visual impairments do not need to be changed for a student due solely to a vision problem, though the methods for accomplishing the goals may be different. Many students with visual impairments, however, require instruction in additional curricular areas. Teachers and schools frequently need to emphasize orientation and mobility training, daily living skills, and social skills for students with visual impairments. Again, the vision specialist should be actively involved in curricular decisions. 5. **Appropriate Educational Environment** Schools and classroom environmental adaptations can help the student who is blind or visually impaired move safely and efficiently through their environment. A student's need for adaptations to the environment depends on their visual impairment and any additional disability. It is important to understand each student's visual diagnosis and the implications with regard to functional vision to make the appropriate adaptations in order to maximize the students use of vision, argues Carmen (2016). Environmental factors include color, contrast, time, space, and illumination. These are the most easily manipulated in enhancing visual functioning. The type of modification required for each factor may vary according to the child\'s individual needs. Some children may depend on color cues, while others need good contrast in printed or graphic materials. Many children need good lighting (and a few may need minimal illumination) in order to see at optimal levels. Some children will need extra time when using vision for functional tasks, and still others may find visual concentration easier when pictures, words, or numbers are spaced well apart. The VI Teacher can make suggestions for visual comfort and efficiency, based on each child\'s individual visual needs. (Virginia, 1996) The arrangement of the class should be comfortable and steady for these learners to familiarize with the location of places. There should be enough space in the class to allow easy movement for students with visual impairment and doors and windows should be opened wide to avoid accidents and remove sharp objects in the class. The classroom shall be well lightened and have good colour contrast. Some students will need increased contrast in order to view materials presented. There are a number of ways to increase contrast to make the materials or print more visible added Carmen. The school will need to ensure that there are special considerations for students who are blind or visually impaired. In the compound of the school and in the building there should be replacement of all stairs with ramps, all holes and drainages should be removed and paths within the compound to allow easy movement will be constructed. Studenst will learn spatial orientation and motor skills which begin developing at a very early age. Movement is the major ingredient in developing these skills in an age-appropriate order Students with visual impairments should move around the classroom or other areas of the school just as their sighted peers do. Free movement around school is an essential part of successful school experiences. Orientation and mobility training helps students accomplish this goal. Koenig (1996) stated that such training "promotes safe, efficient, graceful, and independent movement through any environment, indoor and outdoor, familiar and unfamiliar". Orientation and mobility skills help people know where they are in relation to their surroundings and how to safely navigate within their environment (Turnbull et al., 2002). Relevant skills for the school setting include knowing where landmarks are throughout the school setting; being familiar with the layout of classrooms and common areas such as the library, gym, and cafeteria; and knowing where exits, restrooms, the main office, and other relevant areas are. **Overview on Orientation and Mobility** **Orientation** refers to the ability to know where you are and where you want to go, whether you\'re moving from one room to another or walking downtown for a shopping trip. **Mobility** refers to the ability to move safely, efficiently, and effectively from one place to another, such as being able to walk without tripping or falling, cross streets, and use public transportation.  **Orientation & Mobility Specialis**t is a certified instructor who has received specialized training in teaching people who are blind or visually impaired to travel safely, gracefully and efficiently throughout their environments including indoor and outdoor, familiar and unfamiliar.  An Orientation and Mobility Specialist teaches people who are blind and visually impaired specific skills they need in order to know where they are and how to move independently, safely, efficiently to where they want to be. Usually the O&M Specialist works with students individually.   An Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Specialist provides instruction that can help you develop or relearn the skills and concepts you need to travel safely and independently within your home and in the community. Part of O&M instruction involves working with younger students on concept development as it relates to body image, spatial awareness, and knowledge of the environment.  If appropriate, they will instruct the student to use his hand to protect himself using protective techniques. They will also help the student learn routes throughout the classroom and school. Orientation refers to knowing where you are by using clues from your environment. Mobility means moving safely from place to place in a graceful and efficient manner (Carmen, 2016). An Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Specialist helps the learners in the following areas: - - - - - - - - Different types of mobility systems are available, including sighted guides, canes, guide dogs, and electronic devices (Hill & Snook-Hill, 1996). Orientation and mobility specialists can help determine the best system to use for individual students; as well, the specialists can provide information about the preferred system and any training general education teachers may need. **(Penny and Mary 2001).** Independent travel helps build self-esteem and self-confidence as the student learns to move freely about. It gives the student more control over their environments, enabling them to travel when and wherever they wish (within their capabilities), without having to always rely on others to take them where they want to go.  If the student learns good orientation & mobility skills as a child, they are more likely to develop into a responsible, confident, and independent adult traveler. 6. **Appropriate Educational Resources** Visually impaired students can utilize enlarged print or synthesized voice adaptations on the computer. Machines should be made available to enlarge the print of any printed material, to convert printed material to Braille, or convert printed material into a synthesized voice. Some students also use talking calculators or a tape recorder. Some of educational resources are illustrated below: a. **Large print:** Large-print books are used for instruction or portions of books, such as a map, are enlarged as needed. b. **Manipulatives:** Physical items (such as small toys, buttons) are used to demonstrate mathematical concepts or used in art classes to complete a tactile drawing. Carmen (2016) confirms that "Developing the concept of number sense for math success and understanding is comparable to phonemic awareness for reading. It is important for older students to continue to work on this skill as well as if they have not yet mastered it. To do this, it is important to provide many opportunities for students to explore groups of concrete and real objects and to compare the relative size of groups of things". Picture of a colorful abacus.  Picture of dice. Number sense refers to a student's fluidity and flexibility with numbers as well as the concept that numbers mean and an ability to perform mental math and make comparisons to math in the environment. Students should have many opportunities throughout the day to count both small and large groups of objects; match the number of objects to Braille or print numbers; and to talk about numbers discussing how many, how much more or less, and how many more are needed. Word problems can be a particular challenge for students. Keeping word problems as concrete as possible will help students who have a difficult time with problems completing mental imagery. In addition to providing many opportunities to count, encourage students to explore numbers within the environment. Personalized and interactive books can also be created with the students' name, age, birthday, phone numbers, and address to practice number skills specific to the student. Although hands on experiences with real objects is essential, it is also essential for students who are blind or visually impaired to memorize their math facts as it is for their sighted peers, continued Carmen. **c) Braille**: Textbooks, worksheets (paper with questions), and all materials used in instruction are provided in Braille. Robinson said "Kids learn Braille right away. Parents move infants' fingers along the words because they (infants) cannot see the words themselves. We have to teach them that these dots have meaning and eventually, they begin to associate that meaning". Braille is the literacy medium for students who are blind and for some students with low vision. Students will not only need to learn to read Braille but to write Braille as part of their literacy program. **d) Tactile graphics**: Printed maps, diagrams, and illustrations are provided in a tactile format. The ability to read tactile graphics and charts is essential as part of a Braille student's literacy program. **e) Audiotape materials:** Books and other print materials are provided on tape. **f) Electronic access:** Materials are provided in an electronic format to be accessed with a computer or electronic notetaker. Among those materials which provide electronic access are: **Optical character readers-** also known as scanners, these devices scan printed material and create a text file in a computer. **Note taking devices** Several types of lightweight electronic note-taking devices are available that students can use to quickly, quiet, and efficiently take notes while in class or at the library, then download them to a computer for study or to be printed or embossed (as Braille) at a later time. Most of these devices have audio output; some also create Braille on an electronic display. **Closed circuit televisions (CCTVs)** For students with low vision, these devices can magnify any object placed on the viewing platform for viewing on a monitor. **Note:** - - - - - - **g) Sensory room** A sensory station is appropriate for students who need a place to go where they can have minimal visual and auditory distractions. For the student with visual impairments such [Cortical Visual Impairment**,**](http://www.teachingvisuallyimpaired.com/cortical-visual-impairments.html) they may need this highly controlled environment to learn to look and use their vision **Note:** Cortical visual impairment (CVI) is a decreased visual response due to a neurological problem affecting the visual part of the brain. Typically, a child with CVI has a normal eye exam or has an eye condition that cannot account for the abnormal visual behavior. In other words, cortical visual impairment (CVI) is a term used to describe visual impairment that occurs due to brain injury.  CVI differs from other types of visual impairment which are due to physical problems with the eyes.  CVI is caused by damage to the visual centers of the brain, which interferes with communication between the brain and the eyes.  The eyes are able to see, but the brain is not interpreting what is being seen. **Conclusion** The effects of a visual loss depend on a number of factors, including degree of loss i.e. blindness versus low vision, but also upon early identification that is, when was the visual loss identified; early intervention services i.e. when did the child start to receive support, parents and teacher involvement as well as when the visual loss occurred -- if it was before or after basic communication, and whether language and visual recognition were developed. It is important to realise that children who are born blind or with little residual vision, or who lost their vision at a very early age have quite different needs, and face different barriers, than children who have lost their vision fully or partially later during their childhood. Due to the heterogeneous nature of visual impairments, it is difficult for most teachers to plan for these learners according to their academic needs. Most learners with visual impairment are placed in inclusive schools without specially trained teachers to handle the technical areas for example Braille. Learners with visual impairments lack support from educational stake holders hence withdrew when placed in inclusive setting. The Government should train more teachers in special needs education so that at least each regular school has one. Parents to learners with visual impairments and community should be sensitized on their education. The awareness could facilitate networking for better performance of the learners with visual impairments. **References** Barraga, N. C., & Erin, J. N. (1992). *Visual handicaps and learning.* Austin. Texas. Barraga, W. (1983). *Visually handicaps and learning*. Austin. Texas. Bishop, V. E. (1996). *Teaching visually impaired children* (2nd ed.). Springfield Carmen, W. (2016). Teaching Students with Visual impairments retrieved from *[www.teachingvisualllyimpaired.com](http://www.teachingvisualllyimpaired.com)* on 04/10/2016 Koenig, A. J. (1996). Growing into literacy. InM. C. Holbrook (Ed.), *Children with visual* *impairments: A parents' guide*. Bethesda. Woodbine House. Lydia, A. (2014).**Challenges Faced by Learners with Visual Impairments in** **Inclusive Setting in Trans-Nzoia County**. *Kitale, Kenya.* Murugami, M. (2004). Curriculum adaptation for learners with visual impairments. Lecture notes. Kenyatta University. Ndurumo, M. (1993). *Development Consequences and Intervention*. Nairobi. Longman. **Penny, R. C. and Mary, K. D. (2001).** *Effective Classroom Adaptations for* *Students with Visual Impairments*. *Gainesville* Sam, P. (2016). Students overcome visual impairment. Retrieved from [*http://m.fremonttribune.com*](http://m.fremonttribune.com) Scholl, G.T. (1986). *Foundation of education of the blind and visually handicapped children and youth theory and practice*. New York. American Foundation For The Blind. Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Shank, M., Smith, S., & Leal, D. (2002). *Exceptional lives:* *Special education in today's schools* (3^rd^ ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Virginia E. B. (1996). Preschool children with visual impairment. Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Retrieved *from.* **Educational Approaches for the Deaf** Before putting into action any kind of educational approach, it is crucial to first assess the severity of the hearing loss, and then pick a suitable method for each individual child out of the three primary communication methods used in education of Deaf children. 1. ***Oral/aural:*** an approach to deaf education that emphasizes auditory training, articulation ability and lip-reading.  2. ***Total communication***: a method of interacting with individuals with language impairments using a combination of spoken language and signs, which includes sign language, voice, finger-spelling, lip-reading, amplification, writing, gesture and visual imagery (pictures). 3. ***Bilingual/bicultural (bi-bi):*** This is a philosophy of teaching that recognizes the authenticity and importance of both hearing and Deaf cultures and that incorporates elements of both in the classroom. Programs are modeled on native Sign language as a Second Language (e.g. ESL, ASL, etc) programs.                         These methods have undergone waves of popularity and some are much older than others. This doesn\'t mean, though, that one is better than the other. Each individual is different; therefore each individual needs a different type of method to help them with their development of language, communication and to aid them in their learning. In these methods there may be techniques that are used to aid the child with a particular method, such as: a. ***Sign Language:*** a complete language, or manual language used by the Deaf community in any society that recognizes it as a language of the Deaf community.   b. ***Cued Speech:*** a manual used by some deaf children and their teachers/parents that uses hand shapes near the mouth to help make lip-reading easier.   c. ***Lip-reading (Speech-reading):*** Decoding the language of a speaker by paying close attention to the face and mouth, without being able to hear the speaker\'s voice. As well as these different methods and different techniques, there are different places and settings that the Deaf, or a child with a hearing impairment can learn, such as: 1. ***Mainstreaming -*** the practice of incorporating children with disabilities into the regular classroom instead of keeping them apart in special classes.  2. ***Residential schools*** - these are schools designed for Deaf individuals, particular, to live and learn in a school where Deaf people and the Deaf culture surrounds them every day. **                                                     ** **Oral/Aural** a. In the United States, the oral/aural approach is historically the oldest.   b. Oralist approach of deaf education have believed that deaf children are best served by instruction in lip-reading, in maximum use of residual hearing (through amplification and auditory training), and in articulation to improve speech.   **Auditory-Oral Approach** a. This approach combines **speech,** use of **residual hearing** and **speech-reading**.  b. This approach is the more traditional of the auditory verbal/oral approaches.  c. The child will be trained to use his or her hearing and develop expressive speech.  d. Pure oralism strongly emphasizes no signing and speech is the only acceptable means of response.   e. The goal of this approach is to have the child mainstreamed into the child\'s regular school after having completed an oral deaf or hard of hearing special education program. f. In order for success five elements must be present: 1. Parent involvement  2. Appropriate amplification 3. Consistent quality speech training 4. Developing appropriate language instruction 5. Range of placement option  **Auditory-Verbal Approach** - Although the auditory-oral emphasize speech-reading, this method does not.  - The child is taught to listen first and is not required to look at the speaker\'s mouth for information.  - Often, the child is mainstreamed from the start in a typical preschool rather than a special self-contained oral program. - The goal of auditory-verbal practice is for children who are deaf or hard of hearing to grow up in \"typical\" learning and living environment that enables them to become independent, participating, and contributing citizens in an complete mainstream society.  This is because all children with a hearing loss deserve an opportunity to develop the ability to listen and use verbal communication with their families and communities.   - This method emphasizes the increase likelihood that young children, deaf or hard of hearing, can be educated to use even minimal amounts of residual or remaining hearing.  The use of amplified residual hearing permits these children to learn to listen, process verbal language, and to speak. - With this method, disadvantages that are connected with dependence on speech-reading are eliminated. **Auditory training** - Auditory training is teaching a person with a hearing impairment how to use the residual or remaining hearing that is available to them with the goal of maximizing use of speech and non-speech cues.  - In developing an approach to auditory training, it is important that the clinician consider the amount of hearing that the client has.  - Clients with aided hearing levels in the mild to moderately severe hearing range would work on sound discrimination skills.  - Clients with aided hearing levels within the severe to profound hearing loss range would improve the detection of sounds, particularly environmental sounds.  Therefore, the person may develop at least a functional use of their hearing.   - The emphasis is on teaching the auditory skills that may be delayed or missing altogether.  **Lip reading (Speech-reading) - Cued Speech** - - - - - - - - - - ***Benefits*** - It can be learned in a relatively short period of time, which is helpful for parents and family, as well as the child.  - Cued speech is a way to provide full access to spoken communication through the visual code.  - It provides an appropriate foundation for reading and writing English. It positively affects literacy because it enables a deaf child to internalize the language. The step of internalizing a language is critical to the process of learning how to read and write.  - Cued speech prevents parents from over-simplifying their English or \"dumb down\"  because they are communicating in a language they are  familiar with and do not have to make themselves more easily understood.  - Children that use Cued Speech speech-read more accurately.  - Cued speech gives a child an improvement in auditory discrimination.  - Hearing families who use Cued Speech have better communication and fewer behavioral problems. The key to an aural/oral approach is practice. The child must be immersed in a speech-intensive environment at home and school.                                                                   **Total Communication** - Total communication is the title of a philosophy of communication and not a method. - A number of sign systems, such as cued speech, were developed to convey manual representations of English sentence structure along with spoken language.  The sign systems translate words and grammatical morphemes used in spoken English into visible hand configurations and gestures.   - All of the systems basically follow the share the same features:  1. they generally familiarize themselves with some American Sign Language signs for vocabulary, 2. to convey grammatical concepts, that are not expressed by separate signs in American Sign Language they invent new signs, such as an article, 3. They also produce sentences that copy the syntactic structure of English.  - Total communication is often the first approach recommended because it encourages a child to use to use every available mode of communication to both receive and convey messages. The mode of communication depends on the particular need of the child, whether it is manual, oral, auditory, and written.  - Today simultaneous communication is the most common form of communication used in educational settings for deaf children.  ***Benefits*** - The main benefit is that it opens all roads and modes of communication for the deaf child.  - It allows flexibility without eliminating any options.  - It allows the child to choose the form that is best for them in a given situation.  - It also allows the child some form of expressive communication.  **                                                         ** **Bilingual/bicultural (bi-bi)** A person who is bicultural can move freely within and between two different cultures. Biculturalism implies an understanding of the mores, customs, practices, and expectations of members of a cultural group and the ability to adapt to their expectations\". - Individuals, who are Deaf, are considered **bilingual** if they are able to communicate effectively in both American Sign Language and English.      - They are considered **bicultural** if they are capable of functioning in both the Deaf community and the majority culture.  Research has shown that effective language has to be fast and clear. ASL is an efficient language for visual learning and is easier for Deaf children to acquire as a first language than any form of English\". - Bi-bi programs are modeled after English as a Second Language (ESL) and foreign language interest programs.  These programs emphasize the positive aspects of the Deaf culture.  - Bilingual-bicultural (bi-bi) programs have admiration for both American Sign Language and English.  - In bi-bi education American Sign Language is used as the primarily language of instruction in order to introduce it as the child\'s first language.    - Deaf culture is an **important** aspect to the curriculum.  - English language skills are taught after proficiency in American Sign Language is reached.   - This approach is for all children, no matter what their hearing loss is, but these programs are usually not to be found in mainstreaming, but in residential and day schools.   ***Benefits*** - Early contact to comprehensible language, such as American Sign Language, helps early cognitive development.  This promotes increased literacy and greater academic achievement.  - Students who attend bilingual-bicultural programs develop functional skills in two languages.  - The emphasis of early language acquisition and establishing American Sign Language, as their first language, provides a base, in which English is later taught.  - Students in bi-bi programs have an increased self-esteem and confidence because of the healthy view of Deaf children and their acceptance of who they are, as well as the increased confidence to function in bi-bi environments.                                                                **\ ** **American Sign Language ** - Sign language for the Deaf was first organized in France during the 18th century by Abbot Charles-Michel l\'Epée.  French Sign Language was brought to the United States in 1816 by Thomas Gallaudet, founder of the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Conn. He developed American Sign Language, a language of gestures and hand symbols that express words and concepts. - American Sign Language is considered the language of the Deaf community and is used in the United States and Canada.  - American Sign Language is a distant language within the scope of the world\'s languages, with its own syntactic, semantic, and configurationally rules.  - It is composed of manual gestures called signs in combination with various types of non-manual grammar, such as mouth morphemes, appropriate facial expression, body movement and many more.  - Some of American Sign Language\'s grammatical features include directional verbs, classifiers, rhetorical questions and the sequential aspect.  It has its own grammar that does not in any way reflect the grammar of English.  - People who use American Sign Language use the physical space in front of them to create the mental picture. American Sign Language is suited to the eyes. The eyes see "the whole picture,\" therefore a signer can use more than one sign alongside. ***Benefits *** - Children learning American Sign Language generally develop their first signed words at approximately the same age as children who are acquiring oral language.   - Deaf children who learn sign language in preschool do better in academics, such as learning to read and write English, as well as better behaviorally and socially. - American Sign Language is also far easier on a child's eyes than any of the Manual Codes of English Systems.  - Deaf children of deaf parents are better linguistically than deaf peers born of hearing parents.  This could be due to early language acquisition.  - American Sign Language can allow children to maximize their higher education. **Mainstreaming ** - Mainstreaming is a placement option in which children go to regular classes, as well as going to some special education classes.  - These classes are called resource classes and are taught by specially trained teachers.  - Deaf students who are mainstreamed miss out on the feeling of belonging that individuals from the Deaf culture associate with their residential schools, and their experience is very different from those who attend residential school. Mainstreamed students often are singled out in many respects. - One common complaint about mainstreaming is that the children are only in the regular classrooms for non-core subjects such as Physical Education and Art.  ***Benefits*** - A child that is in these types of environments has the opportunity to meet and interact with hearing peers.  - They are also exposed to a regular curriculum.  - These children often learn how to be self-starters.  - They develop excellent study habits that serve them well as adults, which could be in part because of their inability to understand the teacher and the other students.                                                                      **Residential Schools ** - A residential school is for students who are deaf or have a severe hearing impairment.  It has a comprehensive academic, health, and socialization program including dormitory.  Most programs serve preschool ages through grade 12.  - Residential life as the ideal opportunity for students who are deaf to become familiar with and acculturated into the Deaf community. - The Deaf culture is passed on from one generation to the next through the residential school, where they learn such things as Deaf folklore and folk life from other children, Deaf teachers and Deaf house parents.  - Most schools accept students based on degree of hearing loss, academic needs, parental choice, and other factors.  - Any child with a hearing loss becomes a member of the Deaf culture, but through schooling residential schools.  - Recently residential school's enrollment has decreased because of mainstreaming becoming an option for Deaf students. Therefore many residential schools have shut down.  ***Benefits*** - The schools are designed with the needs of deaf students in mind. - The opportunity for peer interaction is available because of the variety of after school activities.  - Deaf children have adult Deaf role models. Teaching Strategies for Hearing Impaired Students ------------------------------------------------- There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist **all** students to learn but there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with hearing impairments. In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal opportunity, not a guaranteed outcome, is the objective. You are not expected to lower standards to accommodate students with a disability, but rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned. ### - Include a statement in your course syllabus regarding accommodation issues for students with disabilities. See the Suggested Disability Statement for course syllabi. - Invite students to self-identify on the first day of class by making a public statement such as: \"Please contact me to discuss disability accommodations.\" ### ### Lectures and Other Teaching Sessions - Keep instructions brief and uncomplicated as much as possible. When repeating instructions, repeat exactly without paraphrasing. - Clearly define course requirements, the dates of exams, and when assignments are due. Provide advance notice of any changes. - Present lecture information in a visual format (e.g., chalkboard, overheads, Power Point slides, handouts, etc.). - Use more than one way to demonstrate or explain information. - When teaching, state objectives, review previous lessons and summarize periodically. - Make instructional on-line course materials available in text form. For that material which is graphical in nature, create text-based descriptions of material. - Repeat the comments and questions of other students, especially those from the back rows. Acknowledge who has made the comment so students who are deaf or hard of hearing can focus on the speaker. - When appropriate, ask for a hearing volunteer to team up with a student who is deaf or hard of hearing for in-class assignments. - If possible, provide transcripts of audio information. - Allow several moments extra for oral responses in class discussions. - In small group discussions, allow for participation by students with hearing impairments. - Face the class while speaking; if an interpreter is present, make sure the student can see both you and the interpreter - If there is a break in the class, get the attention of the student who is deaf or hard of hearing before resuming class. - People who are deaf or hard of hearing often use vision as a primary means of receiving information. Captioned videos, overheads, diagrams, and other visual aids are useful instructional tools for students with hearing impairments. - Be flexible: allow a student who is deaf to work with audiovisual material independently and for a longer period of time. - Assist the student with finding an effective note taker from the class. - Provide hand-outs (preferably electronically) in advance of lectures and seminars. - Ensure key notices e.g. regarding cancellations or re-scheduled classes, are also announced in ways that are accessible to deaf or hearing impaired students. - In lecture/discussion classes, take care over seating arrangements and encourage people to take turns to speak. Work with the student on strategies to help them participate fully and find out if they wish any other adjustments. - Circular seating arrangements offer students who are deaf or hard of hearing the best advantage for seeing all class participants. - When desks are arranged in rows, keep front seats open for students who are deaf or hard of hearing and their interpreters. - Make field trip arrangements early and ensure that accommodations will be in place on the given day (e.g., transportation, site accessibility). Provide plenty of warning so a personal assistant or adaptive equipment can be arranged as appropriate for laboratory work and field trips. - A health and safety assessment for the student may be necessary in certain situations, and should be carried out beforehand. \'Reasonable adjustments\' must be considered in the light of any perceived risk. - Individual induction to laboratory or computer equipment may be helpful ### ### Writing Assignments and Examinations - Provide assistance with proofreading written work. Stress organization and ideas rather than mechanics when grading in-class writing assignments. - Encourage the use of spell-check and grammar-assistive devices when appropriate to the course. ### ### General Ideas - Break information into small steps while instructing on new tasks. - For students needing other academic assistance, remind them of campus services such as the Writing Center and the Academic Support Center - Providing review or study sheets for exams is helpful. - Allow time for clarification of directions and essential information. - Make instructional materials available in text form. - When in doubt about how to assist the student, ask him or her as privately as possible without drawing attention to the student or the disability. - Face the class while speaking. Be sure that the student and the interpreter (if present) can see you while you lecture. - Avoiding lecturing or giving our procedural information while handing out papers. Losing eye contact with the student may also mean the loss of information for the student. - Repeat the comments and questions made by other students during class discussion. Acknowledge those who are speaking also so the student who is deaf or hard of hearing can focus their attention on them. - Using visual aids and materials during your instruction is beneficial for those with a hearing loss, as vision is their primary means of receiving information. - While the student maintains eye contact with the interpreter, it is important to remember to maintain eye contact with the student also. ### ### Strategies Specific for the Sign Interpreter: - The student needs an unobstructed view of the sign language interpreter and the instructor. Speak directly to the student and the sign language interpreter will interpret your words directly. Do not expect the sign language interpreter to answer for the student. However, the interpreter is available to voice the student\'s signed comments. - Pauses between topics or main ideas during your lecture will facilitate the accuracy of the interpretation and thus be better understood by the student. - If there is only one interpreter in the classroom, he/she might need to break after 45 minutes of working. Interpreting is a highly taxing, both mentally and physically. - Sign language Interpreters who use \"teaming\" share the interpretation responsibilities by taking turns signing. When one interpreter is not signing, they should still be perceived as working as an integral part of the communication process for the student. ### Strategies Specific for the Captionist: - In order for the student to have continuous access to the computer screen or to the person speaking and the Captionist, remember to walk around them. - It is in the Captionist\'s statement of ethics that they will not give away or sell the notes taken in class. - The Captionist needs to be seated at a small table near the front with access to an electrical outlet. Arrangements will have been made by the Disabilities Services staff to have this furniture in your classroom. ### ### Needs of Both Sign Interpreters and Captionists*:* - Course syllabi and any new vocabulary. - To be informed of any films, videos, or overheads to be shown in order to allow time for lighting and positioning to be arranged. - To be informed as to whether the audiovisuals will be captioned, closed captioned, labeled, titled or scripted. - Instructors should relax and talk normally, noting that there may be lag time between the spoken message and the interpretation. - When referring to objects or written information, allow time for the translation to take place. Replace terms such as \"here\" and \"there\" with more specific terms, such as \"on the second line\" and \"in the left corner.\" ### ### Strategies for Working with Students who Lip-read Lip-reading is not easy and requires great concentration. Three quarters of it is guesswork and so clear speech and contextual clues are vital for understanding. There are lots of things you can do to make it easier for a lip reader to follow what you are saying. - **Position:** The deaf student will know where it is best to sit --- this will often be near the front, slightly to one side of you. Try to avoid moving around (this may demand a change in your normal teaching style!) - **Visibility:** Face the light so you are not silhouetted in front of a bright window, for instance. Make sure you don\'t cover your mouth (e.g., with your hands, a cup or pen). Agree suitable cues with the student beforehand to ensure they are looking at you before you start to speak. - **Speech:** Speak clearly and at a reasonable and natural pace. Do not shout as this will distort your voice and lip patterns. - **Reinforcing meaning:** Give the student time to absorb what you have said and rephrase it if necessary. Remember sentences and phrases are easier to lip-read than single words. Use gestures where these are relevant but avoid exaggerated facial expressions. If you change the subject, make sure the deaf student knows. Write things down if you need to clarify them. ### ### Lectures - **Advance information:** Lip-reading is easier when the subject area is known, so give the student a copy of lecture notes/OHPs/PowerPoint slides in advance to help familiarize with session content and vocabulary to be used. (If you put this on the Internet, everyone else will benefit too). Ensure the deaf student has relevant booklists well in advance, as they may rely more heavily on textbooks than lectures --- early access to this information is a great help. - **Structure:** Well structured sessions are important for all students, but particularly for those who lip-read: - Include regular opportunities to review what has been covered. - Indicate when the subject is about to change, or a new concept is being introduced, by writing on the board or holding up an appropriate book or article. - Try to break up the session with opportunities to look at illustrations, pass round handouts or complete individual tasks. - Allow a little extra time for a deaf student to assimilate information and respond before progressing to the next stage. ### ### Seminars/Group Work These can be the most challenging situation for a deaf person. - **Size:** The optimum size of group for a deaf person is between 6 and 10. If a group is bigger than this it may mean that the deaf student does not have full access to discussions. Divide into smaller sub-groups and use regular plenary feedback so key points can be written on the board, or get each group to write their own summary on an overhead transparency. Either will help to reinforce key issues. - **Seating:** Arrange the room so that the deaf student can see everyone by putting chairs in a circle or horseshoe shape. Make sure no one is silhouetted against the light. The student may like to sit next to the chairperson as comments tend be addressed that way, or next to a note taker so that he or she can pick up on missed discussion and follow changes in subject. - **Visual cues:** Signaling a change of speaker or asking participants to raise their hand before speaking can be very helpful to allow the student to look in their direction before they start to speak. ### ### Use of Visual Aids - **Boards and Flipcharts:** When using OHPs, boards and flipcharts, allow students time to read what is written before starting to speak again. It is not possible to read and lip-read at the same time! - **Slides:** When using slides in a darkened room leave a curtain open or a spotlight on the speaker or interpreter. - **Videos and Tapes:** If possible, try to use subtitled videos or obtain a transcript of the commentary. **Reference** 1. Leeson, Lorraine. 2005. Making the effort in simultaneous interpreting: Some considerations for signed language interpreters. In Terry Janzen (Ed.), *Topics in Signed Language Interpreting: Theory and Practice*. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 51-68. 2. Stratiy, Angela. 2005. Best practices in interpreting: A Deaf community perspective. In Terry Janzen (Ed.), *Topics in Signed Language Interpreting: Theory and Practice*. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 231-250. 3. Wadensjö, Cecilia. 1998. *Interpreting as Interaction*. London and New York: Longman. Wilcox, Sherman, and Barbara Shaffer. 2005. Towards a cognitive model of interpreting. In Terry Janzen (Ed.), *Topics in Signed Language Interpreting: Theory and Practice*. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 27-50. **Gifted and Talented children** The term 'gifted and talented," when used with respect to students, children, or youth, means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in such areas as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. There are programs that provide challenging and highly motivating learning opportunities to children with exceptional academic capacity or creative talent. Public schools ought to cater for gifted and talented children at primary schools and secondary schools: **Process of identification** Classroom teachers may use the [Identification flowchart](http://www.det.wa.edu.au/redirect/?oid=MultiPartArticle-id-1892287) to guide them through the identification process. *How can gifted and talented students be identified?* Classroom environments which encourage creative, divergent and higher-level thinking and an open-ended approach to learning will foster the emergence of gifts and talents. There is no single technique by which teachers can be certain that the strengths and weaknesses of any student can be fully identified. However, by a combination of careful, sensitive observations in an atmosphere which encourages individual expression, together with some objective assessment, a teacher can build up a detailed picture of a student upon which confident judgment can be based. **Identification processes should be inclusive** to ensure gifted and talented students are not disadvantaged on the basis of gender, racial, cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds, physical or sensory disability or geographic location. **Identification should be a flexible, continuous process** to allow for the recognition of gifts and talents that may not be apparent at first. Information which will help the teacher identify a student\'s strengths, talents and socio-emotional needs can be gleaned from: - Parents - particularly in early identification of gifted and talented students. - IQ tests (verbal and non-verbal). - Standardised tests. - School records, achievement tests (eg reading, mathematics). - Anecdotal records - Interviews (parent/child/community members/previous teacher/school psychologist). - Identification checklists. - Rating scales. - Interpreters, translators (for students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds). Teacher, parent, peer and self nomination, when used with care, can contribute to the identification process. However, standardized tests of ability and achievement can be of greater value in forming a basis for identification. They are objective and when used together with other data, (such as those listed) can aid identification significantly. Specific achievement tests, such as reading and comprehension, monitor performance in these areas. It is possible some students of high ability may not be achieving to their potential. Gifted and talented students should not be viewed as a homogeneous group. They vary in the range of talents they exhibit and in their emotional, social and physical development. These students\' behaviours vary within the classroom and they might not always be those who gain high marks, who are the most attentive nor the most docile and cooperative in terms of neatness and task completion. **Forms of Provision** The Gifted and Talented Policy and supporting Guidelines outline two forms of provision for gifted and talented students in Western Australia; supplementary and school based These programs should focus on broadening individual students\' knowledge and skills. We want all students in our schools to achieve the highest standards of learning possible so that they are equipped to deal effectively with the opportunities and challenges they encounter in a changing world. We want them to be enthusiastic about learning, in safe and supportive learning environments. We want motivated and capable teachers and school leaders, who feel valued and supported in their work. This site aims to support all teachers and school communities in their understandings of gifted education and guide the professional learning needed to ensure the needs of gifted and talented students are met. Both forms of provision should: - cater for individual needs of students through a differentiated curriculum; - provide further extension in those topics or areas in which the students are demonstrating exceptional ability; - enable opportunities for students to undertake studies in related topics or learning areas; - allow students to undertake studies in different and additional areas of interest; - make more time for students to study important areas in which less satisfactory progress is being made; - include opportunities for accelerated progress in specific subject areas or across the curriculum; and - enable access to a range of additional programs. Parents need to be informed about the progress of their gifted and talented children. The school should advise them about plans to address students\' specific needs through school-based and supplementary provision. Where a number of options exist, these should be discussed with both students and parents. **Inclusivity** The Curriculum Framework (1998) defines inclusivity as \'providing all groups of students, irrespective of educational setting, with access to a wide and empowering range of knowledge, skills and values.\' (p.17) The philosophy of inclusivity encourages educators to create new ways to challenge gifted and talented students: - within the programs and processes of the least restrictive student-centered school environment. - using appropriate, authentic in-class, school and community supports. - by encouraging staff to be flexible and reflective about their professional practice. - by engaging staff at all levels in collaborative planning and service delivery with the parents, caregivers, families, community members and other professionals. Virtually any child at some stage in their education could find themselves at risk. They won\'t necessarily fit the stereotype of the truant or the disruptive student, they may be having family problems, be ill or they may be gifted. This section of the web site seeks to direct attention to traditionally under-represented groups of at-risk gifted students in an effort to ensure that appropriate educational opportunities are provided. **Behavior Management of Gifted Students** All students, including those in Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) programs, are expected to behave in a manner appropriate to the school environment. GATE students are not exempted from any provisions of the School Education Act 1999 by reason of admission to a program. The Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) branch supports the mandatory Behaviour Management procedures which allow schools to deal effectively with seriously inappropriate student behavior. The procedures should be read in conjunction with the Behavior Management in Schools policy. **Exclusions and Placements** Formal exclusion of a student from a school will be supported by GATE branch, resulting in the placement being declared vacant and made available to other applicants. **Monitoring and Assessment** The main purpose of assessment is to enhance learning and enable the reporting of students' achievement. The Curriculum Framework (1998) outlines five essential principles of assessment needed to ensure that the practices used by teachers are valid, educative, explicit, fair and comprehensive. Whether at the classroom, school or system level, assessment information should enable judgments to be made about students\' progress towards the desired outcomes in a way that is fair and contributes to continued learning. Assessment information should allow teachers and students to know: - what students can do assisted - what students can do unassisted - what students can do when working in groups - what students can do when working alone. Assessment information should enable teachers and students to distinguish between work that is original and non-routine and work that is reproductive or memorized. Fair assessment is based on criteria which are valid and transparent and applied with consistency and without discrimination. This requires an assessment regime based upon multiple kinds and sources of evidence. Assessment is likely to enhance learning when the criteria are valid and explicit and when the assessment activities are educative. The [**Curriculum,** Assessment and Reporting policy](http://www.det.wa.edu.au/policies/detcms/policy-planning-and-accountability/policies-framework/policies/curriculum-assessment-and-reporting-k10-policy-and-guidelines.en?oid=au.edu.wa.det.cms.contenttypes.Policy-id-3782023%29) requires all public school principals and teachers to have, and make known to the school community, an assessment and reporting policy based on the principles of the Curriculum Framework. **This policy specifies how principals and teachers**: - provide individual students with feedback on their performance - engage in ongoing communication with parents about their child's achievement and progress - make judgments of student achievement in relation to expected standards - use student performance information to plan future learning programs. Descriptions of expected standards have been developed to assist principals and teachers in this process. Decisions on 'if' and 'how' to use the expected standard descriptors are made by individual schools. In considering the best interests of a student's development and self esteem, schools and teachers, in consultation with parents, may complement the reporting of A-E grades to parents with an alternative reporting format. **Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder** (**ADHD**) **Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder** (**ADHD**) is a [mental disorder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder) of the [neurodevelopmental](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder) type. It is characterized by [problems paying attention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_shift), excessive activity, or [difficulty controlling behavior](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulsivity) which is not [appropriate for a person\'s age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age-appropriateness). These symptoms begin by age six to twelve, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities). In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting. Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents, the cause is unknown in the majority of cases. The [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization) (WHO) estimated that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013. It affects about 5--7% of children when diagnosed via the [DSM-IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-IV) criteria and 1--2% when diagnosed via the [ICD-10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10) criteria. Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed ADHD is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls. About 30--50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2--5% of adults have the condition. The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other disorders, as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the normal-range. - **Cognitive Behavior Modification (CBM).** The objective of CBM is to teach students problem-solving strategies and self-control techniques. Students are instructed in a step-by-step procedure to monitor and direct their behavior. For example, students are taught to deal with conflict by (1) calming down before reacting impulsively; (2) identifying feelings and expressing feelings in an appropriate manner; (3) setting positive goals for themselves; (4) thinking of alternative solutions to problems; (5) trying a plan and evaluating results (Greenberg, 1998). The overall goal is for students to spontaneously think through situations in which they feel the impulse to act quickly. - **Social Skills Training.** Students with ADHD develop impulsive habits that interfere with their ability to manage interactions with peers and adults. The purpose of social skills training is to rectify social skills deficits through direct and indirect instruction. This proactive approach seeks to change students\' disruptive behavior by focusing on teaching new skills rather than the reactive approach of trying to eliminate bothersome behaviors. For example, a student who acts out impulsively might benefit from learning to verbalize his or her feelings (i.e., proactive), rather than being sent to timeout each time the offending behavior occurs (i.e., reactive). Social skills curriculums employ a variety of instructional techniques including modeling, step-by-step scripts, classroom meetings, reinforcement, and emphasizing social skills embedded in the regular curriculum; for example, using science to teach how to anticipate consequences or using children\'s literature to teach conflict resolution. - **Contingency Management.** Based on principles of behaviorism, students are rewarded when they demonstrate socially appropriate behavior. Contingencies also can include negative consequences for inappropriate behavior. Positive consequences can include praise or tangible rewards. Reprimands or ignoring the behavior are examples of frequently used negative consequences. Teachers must be vigilant to ensure that negative consequences are logical and match the inappropriate behavior. For example, a logical consequence for throwing food in the cafeteria is eating lunch alone in the classroom for 3 days rather than doing additional homework. Other applications of behavior theory to ADHD include token economy, response cost, and contingency contracting. - **Structured Activity and Movement.** Planned classroom activities that allow students to move about, converse with others, and interact with concrete materials help students with ADHD sustain attention and reduces the stress of trying to constantly restrain motor activity. Some frequently used techniques are learning centers, planned student interactions, art, music, kinesthetic activity, games, and authentic learning experiences such as teaching ratios by making orange juice from concentrate (Reif, 1998). - **Self-Management Strategies.** Students with ADHD lack organizational skills for sustaining attention and completing projects. Direct instruction in time management helps students learn to divide a task into subunits. By monitoring due dates incrementally, teachers help students set realistic time lines and avoid procrastination. Helping students learn how to organize materials is another key self-management strategy. Filing papers, scheduling, keeping notes in binders, and periodical inventory of materials are frequent self-management organizational objectives. Teaching study skills such as active reading (i.e., writing down questions and comments rather than simply highlighting), webbing of chapters, reviewing key topics and subtopics, and developing test taking skills are helpful strategies. - **Classroom Accommodations.** The physical layout of a classroom is the single most important element in focusing attention. Textbooks with shiny paper particularly are problematic under fluorescent lights. Also, the hum and the flickering of fluorescent lights is a distraction and they should be replaced with incandescent lights. Soft, classical music in the background can be soothing. \"Natural\" sound recordings can have a similar effect. Student seating should be adjusted to cut down distractions from high-traffic areas. Sitting at tables may present a problem for some students. Canels with side panels help eliminate visual distractions. Some teachers report that overhead projectors help cut down on visual distractions by reducing the \"clutter\" that sometimes fills up chalkboards (Flick, 1998). Directions should be given slowly with frequent requests for the student to provide restatements. When worksheets are used, students benefit from fewer problems to complete, lined paper helps with handwriting, and computer software offers myriad possibilities from word processing to games that reinforce academic skills. Helping Children and Teens with ADHD Succeed at School ------------------------------------------------------ School creates multiple challenges for kids with ADHD, but with patience and an effective plan, your child can thrive in the classroom. Parents can work with teachers to implement practical strategies for learning both inside and out of the classroom. With consistent support, the strategies can help a child meet learning challenges---and experience success at school. Setting up the child for school success --------------------------------------- The classroom environment can be a challenging place for a child. The very tasks students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD) find the most difficult: sitting still, listening quietly, concentrating---are the ones they are required to do all day long. Perhaps most frustrating of all is that most of these children *want* to be able to learn and behave like their unaffected peers. Neurological deficits (not unwillingness), keep kids with attention deficit disorder from learning in traditional ways. Parents can also help a child cope with the deficits and meet the challenges school creates. They can provide the most effective support: equipping the child with learning strategies for the classroom and communicating with teachers about how the child learns best. With support at home and teaching strategies at work in the classroom, there is no other reasons why kids with ADHD can't flourish in school. Parents working with teachers ----------------------------- Parents ought to remember that their child's teacher has a full workload, especially in big calluses like those in Rwandan Schools: in addition to managing a big group of learners with distinct personalities and learning styles, he or she can also expect to have at least one student with ADHD. Teachers can do their best, but parental involvement can dramatically improve the learner's education. Parents have the power to optimize the affected learner's chances for success by supporting the work done in the classroom. There are a number of ways parents can work with teachers to keep the child on track at school, helping the child with ADHD learn to find his or her feet in the classroom and work effectively through the challenges of the school day including: ### Communicating with school and teachers Parents are their children's advocate, and it is vital that parents communicate his or her needs to the adults at school. It is equally important for Parents to listen to what the teachers and other school officials have to say, keeping in mind that their mutual purpose is finding out how to best help the child succeed in school. **Plan ahead.** Parents can arrange to speak with school officials or teachers before the school year begins, or plan to speak with a teacher on at least a monthly basis. **Make meetings happen.** Parents and teachers can jointly agree on most convenient time and stick to it. If it\'s convenient, meet in the child's classroom to get a sense of the child's physical learning environment. **Create goals together.** Parents and teachers can discuss hopes for your child's school success. Together, put down specific and realistic goals and talk about how they can be reached. **Listen carefully.** Like parents, the child's teacher wants to see the child succeed at school. Parents should listen to what the teacher has to say---even if it is sometimes hard to hear. Understanding the child's challenges in school is the key to finding solutions that work. **Share information.** Parents know the child's history, and the child's teacher sees him or her every day: together they have a lot of information that can lead to better understanding of the child's hardships. Parents and teachers ought to share observations freely for better schooling results of the learner with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD). **Ask the hard questions and give a complete picture.** Parents and teachers can jointly ought to list any medications the child takes or any other treatments; share with what tactics work well---and which don't; ask if the child is having any problems in school, including on the playground, and find out if the child can get any special services to help with learning. ### Developing and using a behavior plan Children with ADD/ADHD are capable of appropriate classroom behavior, but they need structure and clear expectations in order to keep their symptoms in check. Parents and teachers can jointly develop a behavior plan for the child---and sticking to it. Learners with attention deficit disorder respond best to specific goals and daily positive reinforcement --- as well as worthwhile rewards. Parents and/or teachers may have to hang a carrot on a stick to get the child to behave better in class. Create a plan that incorporates small rewards for small victories and larger rewards for bigger accomplishments. Tips for managing ADHD symptoms at school ----------------------------------------- ADHD impacts each child's brain differently, so each case can look quite different in the classroom. Children with ADHD exhibit a range of symptoms: some seem to bounce off the walls, some daydream constantly, and others just can't seem to follow the rules. Parents and teachers can help the child with ADHD reduce any or all of these types of behaviors. It is important to understand how attention deficit disorder affects different children's behavior so that they choose the appropriate strategies for tackling the problem. There are a variety of fairly straightforward approaches the child's teacher can take to best manage the symptoms of ADHD---and put the child on the road to school success: ### ### Managing distractibility Students with ADHD may be so easily distracted by noises, passersby, or their own thoughts that they often miss vital classroom information. These children have trouble staying focused on tasks that require sustained mental effort. They may seem to be listening, but something gets in the way of their ability to retain the information. Helping kids who distract easily involves physical placement, increased movement, and breaking long work into shorter chunks: - Seat the child with ADHD away from doors and windows. Put pets in another room or a corner while the student is working. - Alternate seated activities with those that allow the child to move his or her body around the room. Whenever possible, incorporate physical movement into lessons. - Write important information down where the child can easily read and reference it. Remind the student where the information can be found. - Divide big assignments into smaller ones, and allow children frequent breaks. ### ### Reducing interrupting Learners with attention deficit disorder may struggle with controlling their impulses, so they often speak out of turn. In the classroom or home, they call out or comment while others are speaking. Their outbursts may come across as aggressive or even rude, creating social problems as well. The self-esteem of children with ADHD is often quite fragile, so pointing this issue out in class or in front of family members doesn't help the problem, and, may even make matters worse. Reducing the interruptions of children with ADHD should be done carefully so that the child's self-esteem is maintained, especially in front of others. Develop a "secret language" with the child with ADHD. You can use discreet gestures or words you have previously agreed upon to let the child know they are interrupting. Praise the child for interruption-free conversations. ### Managing impulsivity Learners with ADHD may act before thinking, creating difficult social situations in addition to problems in the classroom. Learners who have trouble with impulse control may come off as aggressive or unruly. This is perhaps the most disruptive symptom of ADHD, particularly at school. Methods for managing impulsivity include behavior plans, immediate discipline for infractions, and ways to give children with ADHD a sense of control over their day. - **Make sure a written behavior plan is near the student.** Teachers can even tape it to the wall or the child's desk. - **Give consequences immediately following misbehavior.** Be specific in your explanation, making sure the child knows how they misbehaved. - **Recognize good behavior out loud.** Be specific in your praise, making sure the child knows what they did right. - **Write the schedule for the day on the board** or on a piece of paper and cross off each item as it is completed. Children with impulse problems may gain a sense of control and feel calmer when they know what to expect. ### Managing fidgeting and hyperactivity ADD causes many students to be in constant physical motion. It may seem like a struggle for these children to stay in their seats. Learners with ADD/ADHD may jump, kick, twist, fidget and otherwise move in ways that make them difficult to teach. Strategies for combating hyperactivity consist of creative ways to allow the learner with ADHD to move in appropriate ways at appropriate times. Releasing energy this way may make it easier for the child to keep his or her body calmer during work time. - **Ask learners with ADHD to run an errand** or do a task for you, even if it just means walking across the room to sharpen pencils or put dishes away. - **Encourage a child with ADHD to play a sport**---or at least run around before and after school---and make sure the learner never misses recess or P.E. - **Provide a stress ball**, small toy, or other object for the child to squeeze or play with discreetly at his or her seat. - **Limit screen or seating time** in favor of time for movement. ### Dealing with trouble following directions Difficulty following directions is a hallmark problem for many children with ADHD. These learners may look like they understand and might even write down directions, but then aren't able to do what has been asked. Sometimes the students miss steps and turn in incomplete work, or misunderstand an assignment altogether and wind up doing something else entirely. Helping learners with ADHD follow directions means taking measures to break down and reinforce the steps involved in your instructions, and redirecting when necessary. Try being extremely brief when giving directions, allowing the learners to do one step and then come back to find out what they should do next. If the learner gets off track, give a calm reminder, redirecting in a calm but firm voice. Whenever possible, write directions down in a bold marker or in colored chalk on a blackboard. Tips for making learning fun ---------------------------- One positive way to keep your child\'s attention focused on learning is to make the process fun. Using physical motion in a lesson, connecting dry facts to interesting trivia, or inventing silly songs that make details easier to remember can help your child enjoy learning and even reduce the symptoms of ADHD. ### Helping children with ADHD enjoy math Children who have attention deficit disorder tend to be "concrete" thinkers. They often like to hold, touch, or take part in an experience in order to learn something new. By using games and objects to demonstrate mathematical concepts, teachers can show the child's that math can be meaningful---and fun: - **Play games.** Use memory cards, dice, or dominoes to make numbers fun. Or simply use your fingers and toes, tucking them in or wiggling them when you add or subtract. - **Draw pictures.** Especially for word problems, illustrations can help kids better understand mathematical concepts. If the word problem says there are twelve cars, help your child draw them from steering wheel to trunk. - **Invent silly acronyms**. In order to remember order of operations, for example, make up a song or phrase that uses the first letter of each operation in the correct order. ### ### Helping children with ADHD enjoy reading There are many ways to make reading exciting, even if the skill itself tends to be a struggle for children with ADHD. Keep in mind that reading at its most basic level made up of stories and interesting information---things that all children enjoy. - **Read to children.** Read with children. Make reading cozy, quality time with you. - **Make predictions or "bets."** Constantly ask the learners what they think might happen next. Model prediction: "The girl in the story seems pretty brave---I bet she's going to try to save her family." - **Act out the story.** Let the child choose his or her character and assign you one, too. Use funny voices and costumes to bring it to life. #### How do learners with ADHD learn? When learners are given information in a way that makes it easy for them to absorb, learning is a lot more fun. If you understand how your child with ADHD learns best, you can create enjoyable lessons that pack an informational punch