Readings on Indian Literature (ENG3 A05) PDF

READINGS ON INDIAN LITERATURE (ENG3 A05) III SEMESTER COMMON COURSE IN ENGLISH (2022 Admission) CBCSS UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT School of Distance Education, Calicut University P.O., Malappuram - 673 635, Kerala. 2200...

READINGS ON INDIAN LITERATURE (ENG3 A05) III SEMESTER COMMON COURSE IN ENGLISH (2022 Admission) CBCSS UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT School of Distance Education, Calicut University P.O., Malappuram - 673 635, Kerala. 22005  School of Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT School of Distance Education Study Material III Semester Common Course in English READING ON INDIAN LITERATURE (ENG3 A05) Prepared by: 1st and 2nd Modules: SABINA K MUSTHAFA, Assistant Professor, SDE, Calicut University. 3rd and 4th Modules: SMITHA N Assistant Professor, SDE, Calicut University. Scrutinized by: Safvan P.T Assistant Professor, Department of English, Amal College of Advanced Studies, Nilambut DISCLAIMER “The author(s) shall be solely responsible for the content and views expressed in this book” Readings on Indian Literature 2  School of Distance Education CONTENTS MODULE I – POEM 7 1. Small Towns and the River - Mamang Dai 2. Dream: Midnight - Sridala Swami 3. What Would You Do? - Omprakash Valmiki 4. Munda and Kondh Songs - Ganesh N Devy 5. (Other) Worldly Folk Tale - Geet Chaturvedi MODULE II – SHORT STORY AND FICTION 44 1. Scorn - Bama 2. Two in the Next World - Rajendra Yadav 3. The Bride’s Pyjamas - Aktar Mohi-Ud-Din 4. The Night Train at Deoli - Ruskin Bond MODULE III – PROSE NARRATIVES 67 1. The Future of the Past - (Editorial) 2. On University Education (Speech excerpt) – Bhupesh Gupta 3. World as One Economic and Cultural Unit – Meghnad Saha Readings on Indian Literature 3  School of Distance Education MODULE IV – THEATRE AND FILMS 84 1. Beyond the Land of Hattamala (play) – Badal Sarkar 2. The Burning (short film) - V.S Sanoj 3. That Day After Everyday (Short film) - Anurag Kashyap 4. An Excerpt from Abhijnanasakuntalam Readings on Indian Literature 4  School of Distance Education PREFACE For the third semester of undergraduate programmes, Readings on Indian Literatures (ENG3A05) is the required textbook for English Common Course. Indian literature covers a wide range of works that date back to many centuries and include epic poetry, religious texts, plays, novels, and short stories, among other genres. It is one of the most linguistically diverse literary traditions in the world because these works are written in numerous regional languages, including tribal languages. Readings on Indian Literature are divided into four modules and include plays, short films, prose narratives, poems, and short stories. All of the texts in this textbook are either written in English or have been translated from different Indian languages, including tribal languages. The book covers various themes and subjects in the Indian context as well. Readings on Indian Literature 5  School of Distance Education Readings on Indian Literature 6  School of Distance Education MODULE I – POEMS 1. SMALL TOWNS AND THE RIVER Mamang Dai ABOUT THE AUTHOR MAMANG DAI (1957 - PRESENT) Indian poet, novelist, and journalist Mamang Dai is based in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. She is a member of the Adi tribe. She was chosen for the IAS in 1979, but she later left to pursue a journalism career. She is the first female IAS candidate from her state. She contributed to the Telegraph, Hindustan Times, and the Sentinel while working as a journalist. She has also worked as an anchor and interviewer for radio, TV-AIR, and DDK, Itanagar. She was hired as a programme officer at the WWF, or World-Wide Fund for Nature, where she worked on the programme for the Eastern Himalayas Biodiversity Hotspots. She formerly served as the Itanagar Press Club's secretary. The Arunachal Pradesh Union of Working Journalists (APUW) was led by her. Arunachal Pradesh State Public Service Commission appointed her as a member in 2011. Her Major Works Non-fictional works include Mountain Harvest: The Food of Arunachal Pradesh (2004) and Arunachal Pradesh: The Hidden Land (2003). The Sky Queen and Once Upon a Moontime are folklore texts. In 2006, The Legend of Pensam, her debut book, was published. Other works include Escaping the Land (2021), The Black Hill (2011), and Stupid Cupid (2008). River Poems Readings on Indian Literature 7  School of Distance Education (2004), The Balm of Time (2008), Hambreelmai's Loom (2014), and Midsummer Survival Lyrics (2014) are just a few of her poetry collections. She started out writing romantic poetry and short stories. She turned away from the subject of the self to concentrate on a broader perspective. She considers the feeling of a tight-knit community found in more isolated towns and villages. She has held a variety of positions, some of which are General Secretary of the Arunachal Pradesh Literary Society, member of the North East Writers' Forum, and General Council Member of Sahitya and Sangeet Natak Akademi. The Indian government awarded Padma Shri to Mamang Dai in 2011. In 2003, the Arunachal Pradesh government awarded her the yearly Verrier Elwin Prize for her book Arunachal Pradesh: The Hidden Land, which explored the traditions and culture of her homeland. She was honoured with the Sahitya Akademi Award for her novel The Black Hill. Her writing style is impressive because it skilfully blends familiarity and imagination. Although you almost immediately feel a connection to what she is saying, you also feel as though you are reading something completely new. (Poem) Small Towns and the River Small towns always remind me of death. My hometown lies calmly amidst the trees, it is always the same, in summer or winter, with the dust flying, Readings on Indian Literature 8  School of Distance Education or the wind howling down the gorge. Just the other day someone died. In the dreadful silence, we wept looking at the sad wreath of tuberoses. life and death, life and death, only the rituals are permanent. The river has a soul. In the summer it cuts through the land like a torrent of grief. Sometimes, sometimes, I think it holds its breath seeking a land of fish and stars. The river has a soul. It knows, stretching past the town, from the first drop of rain to dry earth and mist on the mountaintops, the river knows the immortality of water. A shrine of happy pictures marks the days of childhood. Small towns grow with anxiety for the future. The dead are placed pointing west. Readings on Indian Literature 9  School of Distance Education When the soul rises it will walk into the golden east, into the house of the sun. In the cool bamboo, restored in sunlight, life matters, like this. In small towns by the river we all want to walk with the gods. INTRODUCTION OF THE POEM The poem "Small Towns and the Rivers" by Mamang Dai is from the poetry collection River Poems, published in 2004. Due to her residence in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, Mamang Dai's depictions of the small towns, rivers, and valleys reveal how close she is to her native land. The poem perfectly captures the spirit of Arunachal Pradesh with each subtle movement. The poem's spiritual overtones and reference to tuberoses also make it obvious to readers that it is an Indian composition. The poem also shows how closely knit the citizens of Indian "small towns" are. Strangely, the death of a neighbour hurts the entire town. Using this method, the poet successfully portrays the morals and character of those who live in India's small towns and rural areas. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The first paradox is introduced in the first stanza of "Small Towns and The River". According to the poet, the only thing Readings on Indian Literature 10  School of Distance Education that "small towns" can bring to mind is death. Despite living in a town that is surrounded by trees, she leads the same life. The poet sees town life as a monotonous journey that ends with death. The synecdoche of the dust in this section serves as yet another representation of death. The atmosphere is made even more depressing by the wind's howling. Onomatopoeia (imitation of natural sounds) is used in this situation with a negative undertone. The poem's second stanza explores the subject of death. A recent death took place in a small town. The news saddens the poet, who laments the loss. The wreath of mourning, resting on the bosom of a dead man, somehow reminds the poet of her own mortality. In this stanza, the poet presents the tuberose as a sign of impending death. The phrase "Life and death" are also repeated twice in this stanza. It makes reference to a cycle of life and death that never ends. These two things come and go. According to the poet, "only the rituals are permanent." The proverb, "Nothing is permanent except birth and death," is actually reversed by the poet in this instance. The poet's disillusionment with life after seeing numerous deaths is reflected in the last two lines. In the third stanza, the poet contrasts two ideas. She spoke about mortality in the previous stanzas. In this section she emphasises the river's enduring nature and claims that it is alive. It travels across countries in the summer. She now uses a metaphor, calling the river's flow during the dry season a "torrent of grief." The river is also personified by the poet to suggest holding one's breath and looking. She envisions the river as an explorer making his way to a location with fish and stars. This representation of the landscape shows the direction and flow of the river. Readings on Indian Literature 11  School of Distance Education In the fourth stanza of the poem, the phrase "The river has a soul" is repeated. The river is aware of the towns that have been visited by the cold hand of death. She knows more than just the towns. She is accustomed to both the first raindrops that refresh the deserted ground and the mist that drapes like a scarf over the mountaintops. Another crucial fact that she is aware of is the immortality of water. The poet also grants the river eternal life by doing this. The fifth stanza of the poem presents yet another contrast. The poet first refers to the "shrine of happy pictures" of childhood. Childhood is the period of development. Childhood photos can bring back cherished memories of the soul's youthful innocence. As a result, she compares childhood to a shrine. It is unfortunate that small towns worry about the future. This is motivated by the poet's impending fear of passing away. In the lines that follow, the poet talks about the eternal nature of the soul. The prospect of escaping mortality's burden and ascending to the "house of the sun" in the "golden east" gives the poet new life. In this brief section, Mamang Dai discusses the importance of living in "Small Towns and The River." The poet makes a comparison between life and how sunlight warms chilly bamboo. Although fleeting, it is still beautiful. In addition, the "cool bamboo" alludes to the physical body, while the sun denotes the soul. Sunlight, according to the poet, is essential for all living things. Similar to how life depends on the spirit of the universe. In the final two lines of the poem, Mamang Dai releases her lifeless ideas from her mind. She argues that being raised in a small town gave her strength. She is now thinking about spirituality and eternity. The poet's desire to "walk with the gods" after death is shared by others from the "small towns" as Readings on Indian Literature 12  School of Distance Education well. This section emphasises the poet's belief in heaven and eternal bliss. The final line also contains a repetition of the "w" sound. The final section's harmonious rhythm captures the poet's peaceful attitude. MAJOR LITERARY DEVICES Paradox The poem opens paradoxically. When a writer combines contrasting and contradictory elements to reveal a deeper truth, they are using a paradox. The poet frequently links small towns or other similar habitations to the concept of death. Personification Personification is a literary technique that involves imputing human traits onto inanimate objects to evoke an emotional response. The poet personifies her "hometown," "dust," and "wind" in the poem. Enjambment When a line is terminated before it would naturally stop, it is called enjambment. It serves as a line transition or continuation. Other than that, enjambment is used to connect the lines of the second stanza and the other stanzas most of the time. Pathetic Fallacy The term "pathetic fallacy" refers to the projection of human feelings and behaviours onto naturally occurring, non-human objects. The poet, however, employs pathetic fallacy in "sad wreath of tuberoses". Readings on Indian Literature 13  School of Distance Education Epigram An epigram is a condensed, humorous, and occasionally surprising statement. It can be a standalone piece or a line in a book or poem. There is an epigram that goes along with it: "Life and death, life and death, / only the rituals are permanent." Simile A simile is a comparison that uses the words "like" or "as" between two dissimilar things. The comparison of the river to a "torrent of grief" in the third stanza contains a simile. There is a metaphor in "torrent of grief". Metaphor Without using the words "like" or "as," a metaphor helps the reader understand an object, person, situation, or action. Continuing, "dreadful silence" contains a metaphor that is specific to the author. Refrain Poetry and music both use refrains. They are repetitions of text that frequently occur at the conclusion of a stanza or verse. The fifth stanza begins with the refrain, "The river has a soul." Alliteration A literary device known as alliteration employs a repeated sound at the start of several words that are grouped together. Both poetry and prose use it. Alliteration is present in "mist on the mountaintops" as well. The letter "m" is repeated here. Readings on Indian Literature 14  School of Distance Education Metonymy A situation in which one term is used in place of another is referred to as a metonymy, which is a type of figurative language. Metonymy appears in "golden east" in the next stanza. Periphrasis or circumlocution When a writer or character avoids saying something they want to say, this is known as circumlocution. When a writer decides to use more words than necessary to discuss a subject, this is known as periphrasis. It happens in a variety of circumstances. The "house of the sun" also includes a periphrasis or circumlocution. The final two lines, however, contain a further paradox. The idea presented in the poem's earlier sections determines the meaning of these two lines. MAJOR THEMES Significant themes in this poem include mortality, life vs. death, eternity, nature, and spirituality. The poet is frequently plagued by the thought of death. As an introduction to this, "small towns" are used as a metaphor. Additionally, the concept of life vs. death is inextricably linked to literary reflection on mortality. The poem's recurring images of the "wreath of tuberoses" and the river are used to illustrate this point. In the poem, the river represents nature and its enduring qualities. To help her cope with the loss, the poet also leans on the consoling arms of faith. The idea of an afterlife provides comfort to the poet. GLOSSARY Gorge : a narrow valley between hills or mountains, typically with steep rocky walls and a stream running through it. Readings on Indian Literature 15  School of Distance Education Sad wreath of tuberoses : sadness associated with funeral. The sadness of the occasion is transferred to the wreath. The figure of speech of speech used here is transferred epithet. Torrent : a strong and fast-moving stream of water or other liquid. QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences: 1. What does the poem mean by “dreadful silence”? 2. “The river has a soul.” What does the poet mean by this expression? 3. Comment on the expression “torrent of grief”. 4. Do you think the poem ends with an optimistic note? If yes, give reasons. 5. Explain the expression “sad wreath of tuberoses? II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph: 1. Comment on the elements of pantheism in the poem. 2. Discuss the literary devices used in the poem. III. Answer the following in about 300 words: 1. “Life and death, life and death/ only the rituals are permanent.” Comment on the eternity of nature in contrast to the temporality of human existence discussed in the poem. Readings on Indian Literature 16  School of Distance Education 2. DREAM: MIDNIGHT Sridala Swami ABOUT THE AUTHOR SRIDALA SWAMI (1971 – PRESENT) Sridala Swami is an essayist, poet, and photographer from Hyderabad. A Reluctant Survivor, her debut collection of poems, was brought out by Sahitya Akademi in 2007 and was included in the Shakti Bhatt First Book Award shortlist. Her second book of poetry is titled Escape Artist (2014). The first Khushwant Singh Poetry Prize shortlist included it. Four children's books by Sridala were released by Pratham Books in 2009 and 2012 respectively. At the University of Stirling in Scotland in 2011, she served as the Charles Wallace Writer-in- Residence. In 2013, she was a Fellow of the University of Iowa's International Writing Programme. She served as a member of the jury for the Montreal International Poetry Prize in 2020. In addition, she has written four books for kids, including Susheela's Kolams and Cheenu's Gift. (Poem) He is twelve and is to be executed by drowning. He escapes. Now he is sitting in front of me as if he has just come out of a shower but he is shivering. Readings on Indian Literature 17  School of Distance Education I have no time to hold him or release the grief that held me. I must hide him from the full house that is half-emptied of what it holds. A cardboard wall, hardly enough. It must suffice. For now. The people know he is here but they greet him as if he had never left and never needed to. I still do not know what he did. Like every mother I say, “My son is innocent.” How did they plan his execution? Is it all make believe? Were they pirates? Did they make him walk the plank? Did he walk off the edge like a fool with his head in the clouds? I can believe this last But I cannot believe in death by execution execution by drowning. It is not civilised. It is not how we live where we live. Readings on Indian Literature 18  School of Distance Education There weren’t men lined up, rifles pointed at the boy who came up for air and reached right for the clouds. He flew. This is what occurs to me. I still dream of flight as if the bowl of heaven is an illusion just because I can see right through it. I gave him wings but he used them to come home. Twelve is too young to be thinking of nests, too old for a son and his mother. He cannot be drowned though he can no longer fly. But he can dream of flight and perhaps that was enough to bring him out of the water as if it was an inverted bowl without substance. INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM Her poetry collection, Run for the Shadows (2021), contains “Dream: Midnight”. The poem explores a chaotic world where justice is arbitrary by showing the trauma of a mother trying to save her 12-year-old son from an unlawful execution by drowning. It also shows the fragmented thoughts of a mother about her son. She hides him from the public because of the fear of insecurity that grips her. Although she is plagued by feelings Readings on Indian Literature 19  School of Distance Education of fear and uncertainty, she holds out hope that her son will use the "wings" she has given him to prevent drowning. The poem serves as the ideal example of an understatement free of theatricality or emotional baggage. The expression is controlled, but the feelings are strong. The poem is infused with the maternal instinct, which is inherently protective. However, it later becomes clear that it is also a meditation on freedom. It is a reader's poem because it is open-ended. Regarding form, there is a great deal of care. The poem ends on a positive note, emphasising the strength of the human imagination. In the poem's final lines, the hope of resurrection is connected to humanity's hope for a new world free from oppression and fear. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The mother who speaks as the poem's speaker in "Dream: Midnight" expresses her worry that her child will be kidnapped. The child is twelve years old and is to be put to death by drowning, as can be inferred from the opening lines. But he manages to escape. Now that he is sitting in front of the mother, it appears as though he just got out of the shower. He seems to be shivering and cold. However, the mother claims that she does not have enough time to hold him or let go of her grief. She needs to hide her son, at least for the time being, behind a cardboard wall, from the strangers. The poem has a persistent feeling of fear and uncertainty. Like every mother, she claims that her son is innocent even though she is unaware of the circumstances surrounding his execution. In the second stanza, the mother inquires as to how the execution of her child was planned. She ponders whether they were pirates. Depending on the situation, they may have made him walk the plank or he may have foolishly walked off the edge. Readings on Indian Literature 20  School of Distance Education Since it is not civilised, she claims she cannot accept execution by drowning. However, there were no men standing in a queue with their rifles aimed at the boy who showed up for air and reached straight for the clouds. The mother expresses hope in the final stanza that her son will not drown. He returned home using the wings she gave him so he could fly. Twelve, according to her, is too young to be looking into starting a household, but it is too old for a son and his mother. As a result, even though he can no longer fly, he cannot drown. He can imagine flying, and maybe that will be enough to pull him out of the water. The poem ends on a positive note that emphasises the capacity of human imagination. A new world order without fear and power is also something that humanity hopes for. MAJOR THEMES The major themes of the poem may include the close relationship between a mother and her child. She does everything she can to prevent her son from being drowned in an unlawful execution because she thinks he's innocent. The poem examines the ability of the imagination and the possibility of optimism in this new world order. To conclude, the poem is written in a simple and straightforward language, rather in a free verse style. GLOSSARY Execute : to kill somebody as an official punishment. Suffice : meet the need of Pirates : persons who attack and robs ship at sea. Readings on Indian Literature 21  School of Distance Education Plank : a long, thin, flat piece of timber used especially in building and flooring Illusion : a deceptive appearance or impression QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences 1. Who is the speaker of the poem “Dream: Midnight? 2. “I have no time to hold him or release the grief that held me.” Why does the speaker say so? 3. “It is not civilised. It is not how we live where we live.” What is the uncivilised act that frightens the speaker? 4. What are the doubts that rule the speaker’s psyche about the ordeals that her son is going to face while being captured? 5. Do you think the poem ends with an optimistic note? If yes, give reasons. II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph: 1. Discuss how the speaker in the poem voices out the fear of getting captured. 2. Discuss the atmosphere of fear and uncertainty that lingers throughout the poem. III. Answer the following in about 300 words: 1. Discuss how the poem voices out the absurdities of contemporary life where everything is defined by power and autonomy? Readings on Indian Literature 22  School of Distance Education 3. WHAT WOULD YOU DO? Omprakash Valmiki ABOUT THE AUTHOR OMPRAKASH VALMIKI (1950-2013) Indian author and poet Omprakash Valmiki is credited with establishing Dalit literature in Hindi. He was born in the Uttar Pradesh village of Barla, which is part of the Muzaffarnagar district. He was born into the Chuhra community of the U.P., which was untouchable. Serving the upper class Tyagi Brahmins is the ordained duty of members of the Chuhra community. The chuhras were compelled to live outside the upper caste residents' village because they were viewed as being "polluted." Nearly all of his writings touch on the suffering he endures as a result of social discrimination and inhumane exploitation related to his Dalit identity. He lived in Dehradun following his retirement from the Government Ordinance Factory, where he passed away in 2013 from complications related to stomach cancer. He is well known for his autobiography, Joothan (1997), which is regarded as a landmark in Dalit literature because it describes the internal and external pressures that a Dalit faces at every stage of life. His other notable poetry collections include Sadiyon ka Santap (1989), Bas! Bahut ho Chuka (1997), and Ab Aur Nahin (2009); his short story collections include Salam (2000) and Ghuspathiye (2004); and his critical work on the aesthetics of Dalit literature is Dalit Sahitya ka Saundarya Readings on Indian Literature 23  School of Distance Education Shastra (2001). Safai Devata (2009) is a history of the Valmiki community. He wrote the play, Do Chera as well. (Poem) If you Are thrown out of your village Cannot draw water from the well Are abused In the screaming, echoing afternoon Told to break stones In place of real work Are given leavings to eat What would you do? If you Are told to drag away Animal carcasses And Carry away the filth Of a whole family Given hand-me-downs to wear What would you do? If you Are kept far from books Far from the threshold Of the temple of learning Readings on Indian Literature 24  School of Distance Education If you are hung up like Jesus On a blackened wall In the light of an oil-lamp What would you do? If you Have to live In a hut of mud and straw Which can be flattened by a breath Or swept away in a night of rain If you are told to sleep In knee-deep water What would you do? If you Have to swim against the current To open the doors of pain And do battle with hunger Send your newly-wed women To the landlord’s mansion On the first night What would you do? If you Are denied in your own land Made slave labour Readings on Indian Literature 25  School of Distance Education Stripped of your rights Your civilisation burned away The pages of your glorious history Torn to shreds And thrown away What would you do? If you Cannot vote are beaten bloody Beaten in the name of democracy And at every step reminded of How insignificant your race is If your life stinks If your hands are raw And yet they tell you Dig canals, dig drains What would you do? If you Are insulted in public Your property is snatched away In the name of religion Your women told To become devdasis And made prostitutes What would you do? Readings on Indian Literature 26  School of Distance Education Your fair complexion Would be burned black Your eyes would be dry, dead You could not write on paper Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram. Descendant of the gods, you Would be lame, a cripple If you had to live thus for ages Like me What would you do? INTRODUCTION TO THE POEM The dehumanising laws that the upper caste imposes on Dalits are the subject of Om Prakash Valmiki’s poem "What Would You Do?" which was translated from Hindi into English by Pratik Kanjilal. He rebels against the long-standing injustices Dalits face in society by asking the self-described "descendants of the Gods" (Brahmins) to live a life as a Dalit. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The poem "What would you do?" illustrates the suffering, affliction, poverty, insecurity and humiliation of the untouchables. It criticises the upper castes' dehumanising laws that are imposed on the Dalits. The poet rebels against the long- standing injustices Dalits deal with in our society. There are nine rhetorical questions in the poem. When Dalits are humiliated, beaten, abused, and insulted in public, the question "What would you do?" is repeated like a refrain. The question Readings on Indian Literature 27  School of Distance Education posed by the poet at the beginning of the poem is what would you do if you were forced to work hard without being paid, were expelled from your village, could not access the well for drinking water, and were only given leftover food to eat? What would you do, the poet asks in the following section, if you were instructed to drag away animal corpses and carry away the filth of an entire family? In the following sections, the poet then asks what would you do, if you cannot write on paper because you are denied the benefits of education. It should be noted that education used to be regarded as a priestly duty and a privilege only available to the upper castes. The right to education was thus denied to Dalits. They were prevented from entering the gates of the temple of learning. What would you do if you were forced to live in a run-down mud hut in the rain and sun, were instructed to sleep in knee- deep water, and had to fight hunger? He also asks, what would you do if you had to send your newlywed women to the landlord's mansion on the first night after the wedding, and if your women were told to become devdasis and turned into prostitutes. They are controlled in this manner and this depicts the helplessness of the women in the Dalit community in its worst form. Similarly, what would you do, if you were denied your own land, and if everyone around you kept telling you how insignificant your race is? That is, the poet claims that Dalits are denied land in the name of religion. It is said that, ‘Sudra’ is denied land ownership in Manu Smriti. Consequently, every right is denied to the Dalits. They are denied the right to vote and are publicly humiliated and beaten as well. Readings on Indian Literature 28  School of Distance Education In this way, the poet asks the Brahmins—who consider themselves to be "descendants of Gods"—to live like Dalits. It should be noted that Brahmins are known as the "descendants of the gods" because they consider themselves to be decedents of Brahma. However, the poet is also outraged by the long- standing injustices Dalits face in society. Thus, it is a poem of resistance in which Valmiki challenges the legitimacy of the caste system, to put it briefly. He vehemently protests the upper caste Hindus' exploitation and oppression- based hegemony over society and culture. The poet's personal Dalit experiences are the inspiration for the poem. The upper caste people never considered the untouchables to be human. Consequently, the poem includes autobiographical elements. The poet, for example, is from the sweeper caste. His own house was next to an upper caste family's foul-smelling cowshed in a colony designed for the untouchables where they had been made to live for centuries on leftover food. To conclude, the poem "What would you do?" is pertinent in the current scenario because there have been significant efforts to support better conditions for Dalits through employment, healthcare, and education. GLOSSARY Carcass : the dead body of an animal Hand-me- downs : owned or used by someone else before you. Threshold : a strip of wood or stone forming the bottom of a doorway and crossed in entering a house or room. Readings on Indian Literature 29  School of Distance Education Devdasis : members of a community of women who dedicate themselves to the service of the patron God of the great temples in eastern and southern India. QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences 1. Why are Dalits denied their land, according to the poet? 2. Who is called “descendants of the gods” by the poet? Why? 3. How are Dalit women tamed in the names of religion, according to the poet? 4. “And at every step reminded of / How insignificant your race is.” Explain. 5. Why are Dalits kept away from the “threshold of the temple of learning”? II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph: 1. The poem “What would you do?” transforms the experience of pain into a narrative of resistance. Discuss. 2. Discuss the autobiographical elements in the poem, “What would you do?” III. Answer the following in about 300 words 1. Discuss the poem “What would you do?” as a rebellion against the age-old inequalities experienced by Dalits. Readings on Indian Literature 30  School of Distance Education 4. MUNDA AND KONDH SONGS Ganesh N Devy ABOUT THE AUTHOR GANESH N DEVY (1950 – Present) Professor Ganesh N. Devy is a scholar, a cultural activist, and a former English professor at Gujarat's Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. The People's Linguistic Survey of India (PLSI) and the Adivasi Academy in Tejgadh, Gujarat, were both founded by him. He is the Director of Sahitya Akademi’s Project on Literature in Tribal languages and Oral Traditions. He has won numerous honours, including the Prince Claus Award for his work on the preservation of tribal craft, the SAARC Writers' Foundation Award for his work with ‘denotified tribes’, and the Sahitya Akademi Award for his book After Amnesia. For his commitment to working for ‘denotified’ and nomadic tribes, endangered languages, and other causes, he received the Padma Shri award in 2014. NOTES ON THE MUNDA TRIBE Munda are indigenous people who reside in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa. They are also referred to as Horohon or Mura, which means headman of the village. Their native tongue, Mundari, is classified as part of the Austro-Asiatic language group. It does not have its own script. The Mundas coexist nearby with the Oraons and the Readings on Indian Literature 31  School of Distance Education Santals, and have some traits in common. Since they are one of the most researched tribal groups in India, the Reverend John Baptist Hoffman (1857–1928) and other Jesuit academics wrote an encyclopaedia about them called Encyclopaedia Mundarica (16 Volumes). The Mundas were probably the first indigenous people to rebel against colonialism, and they did so frequently over agrarian concerns. They organised the well-known millennial movement under Birsa Munda (1874–1901) in their effort to establish Munda Raj and transform their society so that it could meet the challenges of the modern era. Their leaders used ‘both Hindu and Christian idioms to create a Munda ideology and worldview’. The British, however, put an end to the uprising. SONGS OF BIRTH AND DEATH 1. A Munda Song My mother, the sun rose A son was born. My mother, the moon rose A daughter was born. A son was born The cowshed was depleted; A daughter was born The cowshed filled up. (Translated from the original Mundari) Readings on Indian Literature 32  School of Distance Education INTRODUCTION TO A MUNDA SONG In his essay "Tribal Verse," author Ganesh N. Devy emphasises the value of preserving the oral literature of the tribes. He argues for a new approach that makes room for oral literature, claiming those literatures are the source of India's literary tradition. Three songs—a Munda song, a Kondh song, and a chanting in the Adi tribe's ritualistic religious language—are included in the essay. These songs introduce readers to the rich oral literary heritage of the tribes and their close relationship with nature. They were originally written in the native tongue of the tribal people. When a son or daughter is born into a Munda family, a song is usually sung, that is, Munda Song. The song makes clear Mundas' preference for a girl child by linking the birth of a daughter to a cowshed full of cows while the birth of a boy is linked to the emptying of the cowshed. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The Munda have numerous rituals and ceremonies related to marriage, birth, and death. They live in close harmony with the natural world, synchronising their daily activities not with the passage of time but with the cyclical rhythms of the seasons, the rising and setting of the sun, and other natural events. The chosen Munda song conveys their close relationship with nature and is always sung at the birth of a son or daughter to rhythmic folk tunes. At dusk, cattle start to open their sheds. When a daughter is born, the cowshed is said to be full of cows, and when a son is born, it is empty. It is obvious that the daughter is valued higher than the son. This is probably because women dominate many of the economic, social, and ritual activities in Munda society. Readings on Indian Literature 33  School of Distance Education A NOTE ON KONDH TRIBE The Dravidian word konda, which means hill, is most likely the root of the term "Kondh." The Kondhs are an Adivasi native tribal group that resides in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha. Despite the fact that the majority of them are bilingual, they speak Kondh. Their religion is a hybrid of Hinduism and the Adivasi traditional religion. They do not use a dowry system, but they do establish a bride price that the groom must pay in cash or in kind to the bride. 2. A Kondh Song This we offer to you We can, Because we are still alive If not, How could we offer at all, And what? We give a small baby fowl Take this and go away Whichever way you came. Go back, return. Don’t inflict pain on us After your departure. (Translated from the original Kondh) Readings on Indian Literature 34  School of Distance Education INTRODUCTION TO A KONDH SONG The Kondhs practise rituals associated with birth, puberty, marriage, and death and have unique folk dances and songs for each occasion. The Kondhs believe in the existence of Gods and spirits. They hold the opinion that a deceased person's soul will be hesitant to leave earth even after death if it is so close to his home. When a person has been dead for eight to ten days, Kondhs perform some rituals to appease the spirit. The song is a request to the deceased spirit to refrain from bothering the living members of the family with its visits. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The song in discussion is sung at a person's death, pleading with the spirit of the deceased to stop bothering people who are still alive. It is based on the Kondh theory that people love their homes so much that even after death, their souls struggle to leave this earth. Despite being generally good, these spirits occasionally turn harmful as they are no longer be able to take part in earthly life. Therefore, it is customary to give the spirit generous offerings. The song begins by stating that only if other members of the family live and prosper will the dead spirit be able to accept offerings. They demonstrate their willingness to go to any lengths to please the spirit, but in exchange, the spirit must also agree to refrain from bothering them with visits. CONCLUSION Songs from different tribes have been passed down orally through the generations as literary works. These songs have beautiful ornamentation and rich themes. They are extremely important in today's society. Groups of tribal people coexist. They don't seem to be particularly interested in acquiring wealth. The tribal people hold a belief in the interconnectedness Readings on Indian Literature 35  School of Distance Education of God, nature, and people. They think that truth can be spelt out and understood by people. They view their surroundings as more sacred and secular. The tribal people coexist peacefully with nature. They view the environment as a living thing. Additionally, they view nature as their mother, who nurtures them. The natives have an optimistic view of the environment. They have a straightforward mindset and a non-materialistic worldview. They are unaffected by negative forces like consumerism. A matrilineal system is used in some tribal communities. The dowry system is not part of tribal societies. For instance, the Munda song is performed during childbirth, whereas the Kondh song is performed during a funeral. These songs convey the tribal way of thinking as well as their close relationship to nature. They held to the idea that nature and humans are interdependent and nature responds to human behaviour as well. In other words, a closer look at the tribal songs shows that modern society can benefit from the way of life and culture of the tribes. These songs are extremely relevant to modern society. GLOSSARY Deplete : diminish in number or quantity Fowl :a domesticated bird such as a turkey, duck, or goose kept for its eggs or flesh. Inflict : cause (something unpleasant or painful), to be suffered by someone or something Readings on Indian Literature 36  School of Distance Education QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences. 1. Why is the birth of a girl child associated with ‘a cowshed filled up’ in ‘A Munda song’? 2. Why is the symbol of ‘a cowshed depleted’ associated with the birth of a boy? 3. What is the request of Kondhs to the dead spirits? 4. “Don’t inflict pain on us/ After your departure.” Comment on these lines. 5. “We give a small bay fowl”, Why do Kondhs give offerings to their dead ancestors? II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph 1. Comment on the symbols used in “A Munda Song”. 2. Write a note on the Munda tribe. 3. Write a note on the Kondh tribe. III. Answer the following in about 300 words 1. What do you think is the relevance of tribal songs like ‘A Munda Song’ and “A Kondh Song’ in the contemporary society? Readings on Indian Literature 37  School of Distance Education 5. (OTHERS) WORLDLY FOLK TALE Geet Chaturvedi ABOUT THE AUTHOR GEET CHATURVEDI (1977 - PRESENT) One of the most well-known writers of contemporary Hindi literature is Geet Chaturvedi. He is a well-known novelist, screenwriter, lyricist, poet, and author of short stories. He is frequently referred to as an avant-garde author. Eleven books, including two collections of novellas and three collections of poetry, have been written and published by him. His poems have been translated into twenty-two languages. He has rendered into Hindi the works of poets such as Neruda, Lorca, Adonis, Milosz, Zagajeswski, Bei Dao, Dunya Mikhail, Mersal, and Chirinos. He has won several awards, including the Shailesh Matiyani Award, the Krishna Pratap Award, the Bharat Bhushan Agarwal Award for poetry, and the Krishna Baldev Vaid Award for fiction. He received the Vatayan Literary Award in 2021 from the Vatayan - UK organisation in recognition of his contribution to Hindi literature. He considers himself to be a person whose life is interconnected with others despite having titles like "professor," "master," and "avant-garde" bestowed upon him. His poems are rich in intertextuality due to his exposure to international poetry, post- modern European literature, and the Sanskrit-Pali poetic tradition of ancient India. Geet Chaturvedi is described as "a fearless realistic political poet" by his translator, Anita Gopalan. Readings on Indian Literature 38  School of Distance Education (Text) Once upon a time, there was a Seed. It had an Earth. They both loved each other. The Seed rollicked and rolled in the lap of the Earth, and wanted to remain there forever. The Earth kept it secure within her arms and would repeatedly urge it to sprout. The Seed was reluctant. The Earth thirsted in fecund heat. One day, it rained and the Seed could not defer its sprouting. Half-heartedly, it put forth shoots and soon thereafter became delightfully absorbed in growing. Mental abstraction is a delightful idyll too. It grew a good deal and rose to a great height. The earth does not grow in height but spreads out. Much as a tree may expand by spreading out, its upward growth is its identity. They both grew apart. The roots stayed in the ground, so to speak, but to date, who has ever regarded roots as trees? A tree is that which furthers itself away from the earth. If it remained glued, it would be grass. The Tree wishes to go back being a Seed again. The Earth wishes to take back her blessing. It saddens the Tree that it can never again become that single Seed. However, it would certainly turn into a thousand seeds. The Earth would never be able to feel the soft touch of that very same Seed. For her, the Tree would merely be a shadow. Every single thing in life does not have an obverse to it. Night is not a dark Day, and Day is not a bright Night. Moon not a cold Sun, and Sun not a hot Moon. The Earth and the Sky meet nowhere. Nowhere at all. I go and stand very near the Tree and whisper, You hear me, you are Seed even now. That very same Seed. Don’t let height intoxicate you. Even now you are not grown. You are merely Earth’s imagination. Readings on Indian Literature 39  School of Distance Education All trees grow in imagination. In memory, they always remain seeds. INTRODUCTION OF THE POEM Anita Gopalan translated the poem "(Other) Worldly Folk Tale" from Hindi and it can be found in his poetry collection, ` The Memory of Now (2019). His second collection of poems, Nyoonatam Main (2016), contains the poem "(par) lok katha" in Hindi. The poem “(Other) Worldly Folk Tale” is based on the Buddha Darshan called Lankavatara Sutra. The Lankavatara Sutra, a well-known sutra of Mahayana Buddhism, describes consciousness as being the only reality. Buddha asserts in this sutra that all things in the world, including names and forms of experience, are mental manifestations. The poem discusses the connection between the earth and the seed in addition to shedding light on Buddha's teachings, which emphasise that mind is the only reality. The bond between a mother and a child is metaphorically represented by this relationship. A human's perpetual desire to relive their childhood can be interpreted as the tree's desire to return to the safety of her mother earth as a seed. The poet gives readers advice in the poem not to get carried away by the successes we have in life. ANALYSIS OF THE POEM The poem “(Other) Worldly Folk Tale” is a postmodern poem. It is written in the form a prose. The description of the poem starts with the seed and the earth showing their love for one another. The seed wants to stay in the earth's lap forever and rolls there endlessly. The earth encourages it to sprout while holding it firmly in place. The seed eventually sprouts and develops into a tree. While the earth remains below, the tree gets taller. The tree then wishes to return to its original state as Readings on Indian Literature 40  School of Distance Education a seed, but it will never be able to do so. It would only be a shadow of the original seed. The speaker whispers, “You hear me, you are Seed even now. That very same Seed. Don’t let height intoxicate you. Even now you are not grown. You are merely Earth’s imagination.” The speaker is pointing out that the tree is still just a seed, although it has expanded in height. The tree must keep in mind that it is still a seed in the earth's imagination and not become smitten by its height. The relationship between the earth and the seed and the human desire to go back to childhood is explored in this poem in a beautiful and thought-provoking way. The poem serves as a warning against getting carried away with our success. However, we must keep in mind that we are all still just seeds in the imaginations of the earth. MAJOR THEMES The relationship between the seed and the earth is one of love and loss, which is one of the poem's major themes. Although the seed adores the earth and longs to live there forever, the earth instructs it to sprout and grow. The seed reluctantly develops into a tree but longs to remain a seed. The earth also misses the seed. The idea of opposites is investigated in the poem. The earth and the tree are in many ways diametrically opposed. The earth is low and spreads out, but the tree is tall and reaches the sky. While the earth always remains the same, the tree is constantly expanding. The idea of memory is also explored in the poem. Despite being big and sturdy, the earth will always love the seed more than the grown-up tree. The speaker tells the tree that in their memories, they are still just seeds. Readings on Indian Literature 41  School of Distance Education GLOSSARY Folk tale : a story originating in popular culture, typically passed on by word of mouth. Rollick (v) : to act or behave in a jovial and exuberant fashion Fecund : producing or capable of producing an abundance of offspring or new growth; highly fertile. Defer (v) : put off (an action or event) to a later time; postpone. Put forth shoots: (of seeds) to begin to grow, germinate. Idyll : an extremely happy, peaceful, or picturesque period or situation, typically an idealized or unsustainable one. Observe : the opposite or counterpart of a fact or truth QUESTIONS I. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences 1. Why was the seed reluctant to grow? 2. Why couldn’t the seed defer its sprouting? 3. Why does the tree wish to go back as a seed and what obstructs it from doing so? Readings on Indian Literature 42  School of Distance Education 4. “You are merely Earth’s imagination.” Why is the tree called the imagination of the earth? And now is this connected to the Buddhist doctrine? II. Answer the following questions in a paragraph 1. “Every single thing in life does not have an obverse to it. Night is not a dark Day, and Day is not a bright Night. Moon not a cold Sun, and Sun not a hot Moon.” How does the poet speak against binary opposites through these lines? 2. “All trees grow in imagination. In memory, they always remain seeds.” Explain. III. Answer the following in about 300 words 1. How do you relate the themes of the poem with human life? Readings on Indian Literature 43  School of Distance Education MODULE 2 – SHORT STORY AND FICTION 1. SCORN Bama Faustina Soosairaj ABOUT THE AUTHOR BAMA (1958 - Present) Of all Dalit women authors, Bama Faustina is the most renowned and widely recognised Dalit fiction writer in Tamil. Faustina Mary Fathima Rani is her real name. Bama is her pen name. She gained fame when her autobiographical book "Karukku" (1992) became the first Tamil Dalit work to focus on the Christian Dalit community. A Dalit writer's experience of marginalisation is voiced in this book. She made it her mission as a Dalit feminist to end all forms of discrimination that the underprivileged face at the hands of the privileged. She concentrated on women's issues because she believed it was crucial to give them a voice in a patriarchal society. In addition to the book Karukku, she also wrote the novels Sangati (1994) and Vanmam (2002) and three collections of short stories. Currently, Bama is a school teacher in Uthiramerur, Tamil Nadu. INTRODUCTION TO THE SHORT STORY Sarsa Rajagopal and Antara Dev Sen translated Scorn into English from the Tamil story "Ellakaaram" (2004). Bama discusses the social evil of caste discrimination in this tale. The readers' minds are psychologically affected by the story. The Readings on Indian Literature 44  School of Distance Education victims of this social injustice include not only adults but also children. The majority of the action takes place inside a school, and people are separated into different neighbourhoods on the campus according to where they live. The author goes to great lengths to ensure that the readers fully comprehend the severity of the atrocities committed in the name of caste and class. The narrative highlights the way in which privilege is misused to preserve the comforts of the upper class at the expense of the identity and peace of those who are classified as being less privileged in society (low class). OUTLINE OF THE STORY The story begins with a mother and child fighting over the child's reluctance to go to school. The young girl, Chinnaponnu, prefers not to attend school and instead wants to go with her mother to the forest to assist her in her work as a charcoal maker. Her mother Paripoornam becomes annoyed and demands to know why her daughter isn't attending school. However, the young girl broke down in tears and told her mother that she did not want to study but rather wanted to assist her with household duties. At that point, her mother makes an effort to persuade her of the effort her parents are putting into to ensure that Chinnaponnu receives the best education possible. Furthermore, she warns her that if she skips school, her father will beat her. Chinnaponnu was unsure of what to do and kept pleading with her mother to let her take the day off at least. Since Chinnaponnu was regularly attending school all those days, her mother was concerned but didn't know why. In addition, Paripoornam made an effort to convince her child on the importance of a good education and to discourage her from following in the footsteps Readings on Indian Literature 45  School of Distance Education of her parents and being a street sweeper, charcoal maker, or housemaid. Her mother gave her a rupee to buy food in an effort to comfort her. Chinnaponnu was unmoved even by that. Later, Paripoornam met Kittanammal, Chinnaponnu's schoolmate and neighbour, and learned that Chinnaponnu had been physically assaulted by students from the upper caste at school. She got physical abuse the day before for asking an upper caste girl from the other street for a lunchbox. When she went to complain to the teacher, the teacher also beat her and told her that she ought to have asked the children from her street. Caste was a topic of conversation even by the school teacher. Upon learning this, the mother decided to meet the teachers at the school the following day because she was extremely upset. The following day, her mother and Chinnaponnu went to school to voice their grievances. But to their astonishment, the principal and the teachers placed the entire blame on Chinnaponnu. They reminded her that she was just an ignorant Dalit who had no knowledge of customs of her community. The mother was extremely upset by what happened in the school, and she acknowledges that because of her birth, she has been treated as the lowest type of person for all these years. She and her husband, however, do not want their daughter to experience the same fate. For several days, this incident was the talk of their neighbourhood (the slum). But people of the slum did not make a big hue and cry about the behaviour of the children of the other street, but they could not accept the way the headmaster and the teachers treated their children. They were upset because of the fact that their children were made to sweep the whole school and clean even the toilets. Whereas, the children from the other street just came to school, Readings on Indian Literature 46  School of Distance Education attended classes and went home without doing anything. People of the slum were enraged as such incidents were mushrooming against their children in the schools. Three or four weeks later, another incident happened. Komalavalli, the teacher of Class III had put her Pongal festival bonus in her purse but was it went missing in the evening. All of the slum children in her class were taken into custody and interrogated at once. The authorities concluded that Vellukannan's son Kattari had stolen the money. Other slum children were sent home while they detained him in school. When they figured out this, Kattari's mother, Vellukannan, the slum's headman, and a select group of other people went to the school to question the teachers and administrators. The boy was incredibly upset and stunned by what was going on. Along with some other important people, the headmaster had also brought the headman of his street. The principal held Kattari solely responsible. The slum's headman, Kuttiyan, questioned the headmaster about the treatment of the children living in his street and reminded him that they should treat all kids equally. If theft occurs in a classroom, according to Kattari's father, all the students should be investigated rather than just his child, who is from the slum. As a result, a disagreement developed between the headmen of the two streets. Kuttiyan and Vellukanan were finally hit severely by the headman of the other street. Actually, Aravind— a student in his class and the son of the other street's headman— stole the purse. However, as soon as Vellukannan said this, the headman screamed at the top of his voice, refused to accept it, and began beating Vellukannan. Let them be, the headmaster said to the headman of upper caste street near the end of the story. Why should you abuse a dog and Readings on Indian Literature 47  School of Distance Education bear the guilt of your actions? and that " children from your street are just naturally made for clean up work." This demonstrates the awful attitude of the headmaster and the others from the upper caste street towards the people of the slums. Vellukannan's rage at that point knew no bounds. He used all his force to spit on the floor. He took his son Kattari in his arms and left the school, followed by Kuttiyan and others. MAJOR CHARACTERS Chinnaponnu : a girl studying in Class IV. She belongs to the slum. Paripoornam : Chinnaponnu’s mother. She is working as charcoal maker. Kittanammal : Chinnaponnu’s neighbour and schoolmate. Jyothilakshmi : Girl from the other street in the school. Komalavalli : The teacher of Class III who created problem as she lost Pongal festival bonus, Kattari : Vellukannan’s son. He is also from the slum and was blamed of theft in the school Vellukannan : Kattari’s father Kuttiyan : the headman of the slum There are other nameless characters like the headmaster and the headman of the other street (upper caste) as well. Readings on Indian Literature 48  School of Distance Education MAJOR THEMES The narrative shows the detrimental effects of caste prejudice, even in elementary schools. Social stratification is a result of the social construct known as caste. Another significant issue is the hollowness of the educational system, which frequently forces the Dalit students to clean bathrooms and sweep floors in schools when there are no sweepers on duty. Dalit students are also frequently mistreated in this system. This demonstrates the denial of fundamental human rights like the right to a free life and an education. Although there are many laws that protect them from all of these injustices, this story perfectly captures the unfortunate reality that children from the slums face in our society, and change is desperately needed. GLOSSARY glance : take a brief or hurried look. mansion : a large, impressive house piglet : a young pig leeway : the amount of freedom to move or act that is available. implicate : show someone to be involved in a crime tolerate : allow the practice of something that one dislikes without interference scream : loud piercing cries Readings on Indian Literature 49  School of Distance Education QUESTIONS I. Answer the following in one or two sentences 1. What stops Chinnaponnu from going to school? 2. How does Paripoornam try to convince her daughter to go to school? 3. How did the teacher at school react to Chinnaponnu’s complaint? 4. Who cleans the school campus? 5. What happened to Komalavalli’s Pongal festival bonus? II. Answer the following in a paragraph 1. Caste is a social construct. Explain. 2. Explain the dialogue between Paripoornam and the school teacher. 3. Critically analyse the traumatic experiences of Chinnaponnu and Kattari. 4. Caste segregation is a social evil – Explain with reference to the dialogue between Vellukannan and the head man. III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words 1. Elucidate the undertones of caste segregation in the story with examples Readings on Indian Literature 50  School of Distance Education 2. TWO IN THE NEXT WORLD Rajendra Yadav ABOUT THE AUTHOR RAJENDRA YADAV (1929 - 2013) Rajendra Yadav was a well-known Hindi novelist, short story writer, and social commentator. He is a pillar of Indian literature, particularly Hindi. The Hindi literary movement known as the Nayi Kahani movement was led by Yadav and others. He served as editor of HANS, a literary journal started in 1930 by Munshi Premchand. He distanced himself from writing literary works during his final years and became more active as a social commentator. He saw it as his responsibility to speak up for the marginalised, particularly Dalits and women. He produced a large number of short stories, but his novels continue to have a greater influence. His short stories "Jahan Lakshmi Kaid Hai" and "Chhote Chhote Tajmahal," as well as his novels Sara Akash and Ukhare Hue Log, established a new standard for literary brilliance. Yadav is renowned for his characters' bold and bare delineation. He challenged all of the hegemonic practises of the day and articulated them with honesty and clarity as a champion of intellectual freedom. INTRODUCTION TO THE STORY The story titled "The Two in the Next World" was first written in Hindi as ‘Do Divangat’, but Pratik Kanjilal later translated it into English. Like all Yadav stories, this one centres on the hypocrisies of a Brahminical society and highlights the Readings on Indian Literature 51  School of Distance Education atrocities committed against the weak. It talks about the major social problems of the day, including casteism, corruption, and dowry murders. He persists in painting a clear picture of the corrupted government for his readers. To make a devastating impact, he uses two dead souls as earthy metaphors. The author highlights the sad reality of racial discrimination while maintaining focus on the bigger picture. Throughout the entire story, the use of irony is both noticeable and frequent. The narrator is from the upper class, and the woman from a similar background is the second of the two souls mentioned in the title. Thus, it is clear that the author is adamant about making his points. OUTLINE OF THE STORY The narrator, who is currently in the next world, describes how he passed away as a result of an unethical doctor's negligence. Initially, the narrator had planned to have a government surgeon perform his operation, but he later discovered that because the surgeon came from the reserved quota, he was incompetent or inexperienced. But later, he realises that it was his wrong assumption. The narrator then went to a famous nursing home and asked for advice from a young, attractive, and clever doctor. The narrator's family decided to take a risk on the expensive doctor in the hopes that he would be saved despite the cost. But the narrator passed away on the operating table. The narrator discovered that the doctor had completed medical school by using lakhs in cash to grease palms and grabbing ministers' and officers' feet. On the day of his graduation, the doctor also acquired a dowry worth crore and overnighted a nursing home. The young wife of the doctor killed herself because she was unable to extract enough money from her parents to support her husband. The day the doctor operated on Readings on Indian Literature 52  School of Distance Education the narrator, he also formed an alliance with a prominent and affluent family for his second marriage. The medication the narrator's doctor had prescribed for him was also fake. The narrator, who is now comfortable in the afterlife, intends to locate the doctor's first wife and make friends with her. MAJOR CHARACTERS The narrator is a nameless, dead person. The story is narrated from his perspective. The doctor of the government hospital who falls under the reserved quota was ignored by the narrator due to his caste. The story also includes references to a young, wealthy doctor who was also smart and attractive who worked in a well-known nursing home. Then there is a reference to the young doctor’s first wife who is dead. Here, the narrator is in the next world and he describes what happened to him on the day of his surgery. MAJOR THEMES Social injustice based on caste discrimination is the main theme of the narrative. Then he depicts the consequences of the dowry system. He also addresses the corruption in the medical sector. The story also emphasises the value of compassion and friendship. By making friends with the young doctor's dead wife, the narrator is able to find solace in the afterlife. This implies that there is always hope for friendship and compassion despite hardship. Readings on Indian Literature 53  School of Distance Education GLOSSARY Surgeon : a medical practitioner qualified to practice surgery Nursing home : private institution providing residential accommodation with health care. Gamble : take risky action in hope of a desired result. Greasing palms : give someone money in exchange for a favour. QUESTIONS I. Answer the following in one or two sentences 1. What happened to the narrator? 2. Why did the narrator and the family decided to replace the doctor? 3. What happened to the young doctor’s wife? 4. Who are the two of the title ‘The Two in the Next World’? II. Answer the following in a paragraph 1. Corruption as a social evil. 2. Dowry and its associated evils in the story/ 3. Caste discrimination in the story. III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words 1. Explain the title of the story. 2. Caste discrimination is the result of social conditioning – Explain. Readings on Indian Literature 54  School of Distance Education 3. THE BRIDE'S PYJAMAS Akhtar Mohi-Ud-Din ABOUT THE AUTHOR AKTAR MOHIUDDIN (1928 - 2001) Akhtar Mohiuddin, a novelist, playwright, and short story writer, was born on April 17, 1928, in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. Up until his death in 2001, he resided in Lal Bazaar. Mohiuddin, one of the forerunners of the contemporary Kashmiri short story, has written numerous collections of short stories, novels, travel essays, and plays. Sat Sangar (Seven Peaks), Mohiuddin's debut collection of short stories, was released in 1955. In 1959, Sonzal (Rainbow) came after that. In 2009, the posthumous editions of Vanun ma Baniyam and Seven One Nine Seven Nine and Other Stories were released. Additionally, he has written two novels: Zuv Te Zolana (Precarious Life) and Daud Dug (Disease and Pain). Posthumously, his book Jahanumukh Panun panun Naar (To Each According to His Own Hell) was also released. Numerous prestigious honours have been bestowed upon Mohiuddin, including the Padam Shri (1968), the fourth-highest civilian award given in India. Great art, in the opinion of Akhtar Mohiuddin, "is one in which we can hear the very heartbeat of life, and whose lips we can see the innocent smile of a small child." He referred to art as "the apple of life's eye." Because of this, the life of the common people in his surroundings can be seen in his works. They depict Readings on Indian Literature 55  School of Distance Education the culture he lived in. His later writings discuss Kashmir's populist uprising in the 1990s. In fact, after the mass murders that occurred during this movement in Kashmir, Akhtar Mohiuddin rejected his Padam Shri. In his writings, modernist fiction master Akhtar Mohiuddin skilfully employed the interior monologue and stream of consciousness techniques. The short story Fixture included in Seven One Nine Seven Nine and Other Stories (2009) is in the form of an interior monologue. INTRODUCTION TO THE STORY This work is translated from the original Kashmiri version by Motillal Raina. The 1990s were a turbulent time for Kashmiris. Despite the war-torn environment, the story takes a break from the pressing issues of the time and focuses on the romance between an elderly man named NabirShalla and his wife Khotan Didi. The story draws our attention to the hypocrisies of society in how it treats the old people as it focuses on the enduring nature of love. The age is reduced to just numbers in the story. NabirShalla does clothing repair. Of their ten children, the couple had lost eight to infant mortality. The elderly couple, however, is still so full of love and makes the most of their remaining days on earth despite life's tragedies and other old age concerns. The sight of the rose- red coloured pyjamas gives them a chance to break away from the routine of their old age life. Without fear of criticism from others, they dance to the sounds of their wedding day. OUTLINE OF THE STORY Despite the fact that it was written in an area of intense unrest, the story is not political. It's a beautiful and moving tale of a long-married couple who remain passionate about one another. Readings on Indian Literature 56  School of Distance Education NabirShalla and His wife Khotan Didi are the main characters of the story. The story focuses on the permanence of love and takes our attention towards the hypocrisies of our society and its treatment towards old people. NabirShalla is 70 years old and he owns a ramshackle house and he sings his favourite songs in and out often. He being a shawl maker, most of his time is spent on the verandah and he recites those songs often. As we move on, we find that he was able to make a living, despite the difficulties of his age. Customers flock to him as he is an expert in his job. His wife, Khotan Didi would press his back every day to relieve him of the pain he had, served him good meal and filled his hookah and so on. She would sit in front of him spinning cotton at her wheel. They had ten children, but only two daughters survived to adulthood. Kothan Did had only one regret as none of her sons lived. In spite of all these, both of them were happy in their own ways. Sometimes, she says, even my son-in-law is now an old man. The man does clothing repair. Kothan Didi finds the red pyjamas she wore on the night of her wedding while clearing some old clothing one day. That reminded her of her youth. NabirShalla asked Kothan Did to slip into those pyjamas. NabirShala insisted her to wear those pyjamas. When her husband tries to convince her to put them on, she denounces him, saying, "Don't be silly, old man." She puts them on and her husband is giving her an embrace reminiscent of many years ago. It was a marvellous sight to see and he began to tease Khotan Didi amorously. Suddenly, they heard a knock on the door, and they saw their eldest son-in-law entering the house and actually he was watching them from there. He went away without saying a word out of anger. Khotan Didi looked guilty but NabirShalla asked her not to be guilty as it was their own home and they had the right to love each other. Readings on Indian Literature 57  School of Distance Education MAJOR CHARACTERS NabirShalla – a 70-year-old shawl maker who owns a ramshackle. Khotan Didi – his wife who is also aged. she is also fond of her husband, NabirShalla. She had rheumatism in her legs. Of her ten children only, two daughters survived. They are married off as well. Her only regret in life is that none of her sons lived long enough. MAJOR THEMES Major themes discussed in this story are the hypocrisies of the society towards aged people. But, NabirShalla and Khotan Di, through their love prove that age is just a number and that love conquers all. They are trying to be happy and making their living in their own way. GLOSSARY ramshackle : in a state of severe despair croon : hum or sing in a soft, low voice lisp : a speech defect chaddar : a kind of shawl obstinate : very difficult to change Readings on Indian Literature 58  School of Distance Education QUESTIONS I. Answer the following in one or two sentences 1. What did NabirShalla do for a living? 2. What did Khotan Didi go in search of? 3. What made Khotan Didi Sad all of a sudden? 4. Who had come to visit them at the end of the story? II. Answer the following in a paragraph 1. The significance of the red-rose pyjamas in the story. 2. Love is for all ages – Explain in the context of the story. 3. Character sketch of NabirShalla III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words 1. Age is just a number – Explain with reference to the story. Readings on Indian Literature 59  School of Distance Education 4. THE NIGHT TRAIN AT DEOLI Ruskin Bond ABOUT THE AUTHOR RUSKIN BOND (1934- PRESENT) Ruskin Bond, who now resides in Mussoorie, is a native of Himachal Pradesh. He wrote numerous books for children. Due to his father's Royal Air Force service, he had to relocate frequently. The poet still bears the scars from his parents' divorce when he was a young child. His grandmother, who took care of him after his father death unexpectedly, remained an integral part of his life until her demise. Bond has written more than 500 short stories, essays, and novels. For his first book, The Room on the Roof (1956), he was awarded the prestigious John Llewelkyn Rhys Prize. He was awarded Sahitya Akademi Award for Our Trees Still Grow in Dehra in 1992. He was conferred with Padma Shri in 1999 and Padma Bhushan in 2014. He is renowned for his straightforward but incisive, indulgent, and captivating writing style. One of his most well-known short stories, ‘A Flight of Pigeons’, was made into the movie "Junoon." INTRODUCTION TO THE STORY The short story "The Night Train at Deoli" was authored by Ruskin Bond in his collection The Night Train at Deoli and Other Stories (1988). It tells the tale of a brief encounter Readings on Indian Literature 60  School of Distance Education between an 18-year-old college student travelling by train and a young girl selling baskets on a railway platform. During his travels, he only has two meetings with the girl. He is aware of the fact that the girl had stolen his heart. Profiting from the nostalgic element, the story goes beyond the boundaries of the momentary in such a way that readers are left with a lasting memory of the girl and the Deoli train station. The story succeeds in leaving an enduring emotional and psychological imprint due to its rich description of the scenic beauty of Deoli, a region at the foothills of the Himalayas. OUTLINE OF THE STORY Deoli is a small station, 30 miles away from Dehra, which marked the beginning of the heavy jungles of the Indian Terai. The station had only one platform, an office for the station master and a waiting room. On the platform, there was a tea stall, a fruit vendor, and a few stray dogs. The train stopped there only for 10 minutes. We don’t find coolies on the platform. No one ever got off the train and in the train. The first meeting Every summer, the narrator who is a college student, 18 years old makes the trip from the plains to his hometown of Dehradun, his grandmother’s place. He favours taking the overnight train when he travels. The train stops in the sleepy village of Deoli very early in the morning. Since nobody boarded or exited the train at that station, the narrator does not understand why it had to stop there. During one such journey, the student notices a pale girl selling cane baskets on the platform. She moves with grace Readings on Indian Literature 61  School of Distance Education and dignity despite the fact that she appears to be poor. The author is drawn to the girl’s glossy black hair and dark, troubled eyes. The young woman offers to sell him some baskets. When she insisted, he initially refused to buy, but eventually gave in and did so after some hesitation and daring not to touch her fingers. Without saying a word, they simply looked at each other for a while. They appear to become closer because of it. He inquiries about her availability for his return trip as the train departs. She says something, but he fails to understand it over the noise of the train. The second meeting He searches for her on his way back and finds her. They are delighted to see each other again as old friends. Even though they remain silent, their silence conveys more than words. He wants to take her with him but decides against it. She responds that she doesn't need to go anywhere when he tells her that he has to go to Delhi, perhaps to show her helplessness. As the train pulls away from the station, they both part ways resentfully in the hopes of reuniting later. The encounter relieves some of the boredom of his journey. It fosters a sense of responsibility and attachment to the girl. He keeps thinking about the girl he met at the station in Deoli throughout his journey and for a considerable amount of time after it. The narrator's disappointment He hastily departs for Dehra the following summer, shortly after his college term is over. It's just an excuse for him to go see his grandmother. He can't wait to see the girl again. He waits for a while at the Deoli station, but this time she is nowhere to be found. He is greatly disappointed by this and is filled with anxiety. He waits impatiently to see her once more as he makes Readings on Indian Literature 62  School of Distance Education his way back to Delhi, but it is in vain. Inquiring further, he discovers that nobody is aware of the girl and that she has stopped visiting the station to sell her bamboo baskets. He has to run once more to catch his train. He decides he will definitely stop on the way there, spend the day in the town, ask around, and try to locate the girl who has captured his heart. The narrator's subsequent visit The following year in summer, he again walks up and down the platform hoping to see the girl, but somehow, he cannot bring himself to break the journey to look for her. He appears to be afraid of discovering the real story about her. He worries that he might learn something unfavourable about her that he cannot accept. He merely wishes to hold onto his lovely memories of her. However, he makes it clear to his readers that he did not want to portray himself as the hero of a story in which the protagonist meets his beloved after overcoming all obstacles and ultimately wins her heart. He would rather continue to wait for the girl while dreaming and hoping. Conclusion We can identify with the young man, despite the fact that we don't know much about his upbringing or current situation. We can all recall experiences of intense attraction towards someone we hardly know, moments of fantasy-like love. Building someone up in our minds is something we are all familiar with. The narrator stays there the entire time. He never acts, and as a result, he is overcome with regret. Since Bond's narrator resembles "every man," readers can relate to him easily. We find that there is less dialogues in the story Readings on Indian Literature 63  School of Distance Education MAJOR CHARACTERS The Narrator – probably the author himself, nameless college going young boy who is 18 years old. A girl – a young girl who sold baskets on the platform. The girl had a shawl thrown across her shoulder. Her feet were bare and her clothes were old, but she walked gracefully and with dignity. She had pale skin, shiny black hair and dark troubled eyes. Station masters at Deoli railway station Tea stall owner – a small, shrivelled up man, wearing greasy clothes. The guard who has minor role in the story. MAJOR THEMES Major themes discussed in the story is innocence, memories, connection, love or infatuation are presented with great sensitivity. In short, the story revolves around the narrator and the girl. GLOSSARY coolie : a labourer; a porter impulse : a sudden strong and unreflective urge to act recede : move back or further away from a previous position brood : think deeply about something Readings on Indian Literature 64  School of Distance Education QUESTIONS I. Answer the following in one or two sentences 1. how does the author spend his summer vacation? 2. What happened during one of his journeys to Dehra? 3. What does the girl at the Deoli train station sell? 4. What happened between the author and the girl? 5. Does the author succeed in finding the whereabouts of the girl? II. Answer the following in a paragraph 1. Character sketch of the girl who sells baskets. 2. Character sketch of young Bond 3. Imagination paves way for hope – Explain with reference to the story. III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words 1. ‘The Night Train at Deoli’ cashes in on the element of nostalgia – Justify. 2. Scenic description about nature set the tone of a story – Explain with reference to the story. Readings on Indian Literature 65  School of Distance Education References:  Bama. Sangati. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.  Chakravarti, Uma. Gendering Caste Through Feminist Lens. Calcutta: STREE, 2009.  Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and Literary Traditions in India, ed. Sukinta Paul Kumar, for University of Delhi.  G., Sreeja, et.al. Readings on Indian Literatures. Feroke: PrintArts Offset, 2023. (Core Text)  https://www.jstor.org/stable/24158553  https://www.poetryinternational.org/pi/poet/16974/Mamang -Dai/en/tile  http://rereadinglives.blogspot.com/2011/05/scorn-by-bama- faustina-leading-woman.html  http://www.littlemag.com/reservation/bama2.html  https://blog.shunya.net/shunyas_blog/2010/01/what-would- you-do.html Readings on Indian Literature 66  School of Distance Education MODULE 3 - PROSE NARRATIVES 1. Future of the Past (Editorial) 2. On University Education (Speech excerpt Bhupesh Gupta) 3. World as one Economic and Cultural Unit –Meghnad Saha 1 THE FUTURE OF THE PAST – (EDITORIAL) "The Future of the Past" is an editorial piece from The Hindu, dated February 9, 2010. It was extracted from the compiled editorials published by the newspaper titled 'The Second 100 - A Selection of Editorials 1978-2016'. This article addresses the backdrop of the passing of Boa Senior, aged 85, from the Andamans. She was the last individual who spoke the language of her tribe. The article primarily centres on the disappearance of a language from history and the destiny of the Andaman Archipelago, situated about 130 km south west off the coasts of Myanmar's Ayeyarwady Region, in the north- eastern Indian Ocean. Linguistically, language death occurs when a language loses its final native speaker. In extension, language extinction occurs when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers, and becomes recognized as extinct. Language serves not solely as a Readings on Indian Literature 67  School of Distance Education communication tool but also as a medium that shapes our lives. As Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein noted, 'The limits of one’s language are the limits of one’s world.' A language encapsulates culture and a way of life, and additionally, acts as a reservoir of indigenous knowledge. When a language becomes extinct, a culture is similarly erased from the world. The editorial expresses deep condolences for the passing of Boa Sr, the last speaker of 'Bo,' one of the ten languages spoken by the tribes inhabiting the expansive Andaman Archipelago. The editorial acknowledges that the passing of this elderly lady symbolises the irreplaceable loss of a global heritage – a transition of the remnants of living culture into memory. It serves as a reminder of the endangered living conditions of the Andaman Islands' people and the importance of safeguarding their culture, which dates back approximately 70,000 years, against further degradation in the guise of 'upliftment' and 'civilization'. The tribal population has dwindled from 5,000 to around 50 due to numerous reasons, including casualties inflicted by British colonizers and diseases introduced by settlers. Once spread across the expansive Great Andaman region, they are now confined to the small Straight Island, significantly stripped of their cultural and linguistic identities. Of the Andaman Islands' tribes, only three survive: Jarawas, Onges, and Sentinelese. Around 250 Jarawas, who refrained from contact with outsiders until a couple of decades ago, now face severe threats from external influences due to 'friendly contact' encouraged by the Great Andaman Trunk Road, which traverses their forest homeland. The Onges' language (approximately 100 speakers) persists among the tribes living in the remote pockets of Little Andaman. The Sentinelese, who vehemently resist outsiders, remain largely unknown. The linguistic and cultural diversity of the Andamans has been Readings on Indian Literature 68  School of Distance Education largely overlooked, with minimal efforts to protect them. The dialects of the Great Andamanese are regarded as one of the five language families in India. If Onge-Jarawa indeed stems from a distinct linguistic ancestor, as some believe, this extraordinary region would have contributed to two out of six language families. The editorial highlights the necessity of safeguarding these unique languages, emphasizing that this must be a political endeavor. Preserving these languages serves as a pathway to empower indigenous communities to safeguard their traditions and utilize local resources in an autonomous and sustainable manner. Safeguarding these tribes' languages equates to preserving the heritage of the past and securing the future. This editorial piece underscores the significance of language and the imperative of preserving tribal languages for a more promising future. Language serves as a repository of cultural and social knowledge. If it becomes extinct, it will constitute a significant loss to humanity as a whole. In conclusion, "The Future of the Past" shows us how closely language, culture, and heritage are connected. When we lose languages like Boa Senior's, we also lose parts of our shared history. This article reminds us that we should work together to keep these languages alive. By doing so, we're respecting the wisdom of different communities and making our world more diverse and rich. Taking care of these languages is like protecting our story from the past and making our future better. Glossary Repository (n): a place where something is stored in large quantities Readings on Indian Literature 69  School of Distance Education Ludwig Wittgenstein: Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of Mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. He is considered by some to be the greatest philosopher of the 20th century. Ruminative (adj): tending to think deeply and carefully about things. Archipelago (n): a group of islands and the sea surrounding them. Dwindle (v) : to become gradually less or smaller. Strait Islands: Strait Island is an island of the Andaman Islands. It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The island lies 63 km north from Port Blair. The Great Andaman Trunk Road: National Highway 4, or NH 4, is the major highway in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is 230.7 km in length. This road running from the capital city of Port Blair to Diglipur connects all major towns. This highway is known as The Great Andaman Trunk Road. Little Andaman: Little Andaman Island is the fourth largest of the Andaman Islands of India with an area of 707 km², lying at the southern end of the Archipelago. Flora and fauna: Fauna is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora, and for fungi, it is funga Flora, fauna, funga, and other forms of life are collectively referred to as biota. Readings on Indian Literature 70  School of Distance Education 1. Answer the following in one or two sentences. 1. What does the death of a language suggest? 2. What is the important observation that Wittgenstein made about language? 3. What is Bo and who is Boa Sr? 4. What does the passing of Boa Sr represent? 5. What caused the dwindling number of indigenous people in Andaman? II. Answer the following in a paragraph. 6. The surviving tribes in Andaman. 7. Importance of the linguistic diversity of Andaman. 8. Significance of the death of Boa Sr, the last speaker of Bo language. III. Answer the following questions in about 300 words. 9. Comment on the significance of protecting the 'Future of the Past." 10. Diversity of languages in India. Readings on Indian Literature 71  School of Distance Education ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION (Speech excerpt) About the Author Bhupesh Gupta, born in 1914, was an Indian politician and a prominent leader of the Communist Party of India. Hailing from Itna, a village in the Mymensingh district of Bengal Province in British India, Gupta received his education at the Scottish Church College of Calcutta University. He actively engaged in student politics and joined a group of Bengal revolutionaries. Serving as a member of the Rajya Sabha for five terms from West Bengal, he proved himself as an eloquent and effective parliamentarian. He passed away in Moscow on August 6, 1981. This particular speech was delivered in the Rajya Sabha on September 1, 1965, during the discussion of M C Chagla's bill introducing the initial concept of Jawaharlal Nehru University. In this speech, Gupta voiced his reservations about the bill. He critiqued the lack of inspiration in the bill's emphasis on Nehru's biographical sketch. Gupta acknowledged Nehru's greatness but argued against immortalizing him by naming a university after him. He believed that the focus should instead be on the university's proposal and its vision. Notably, the structured JNU was founded on the principles articulated by Bhupesh Gupta. This speech excerpt is sourced from the Penguin Book of Modern Indian Speeches: 1877 to the Present, 2007, edited by Rakesh Batabyal. Readings on Indian Literature 72  School of Distance Education Text in brief Mr. Chairman, Sir, Bhupesh Gupta began by acknowledging that several speeches, particularly from the Congress benches, had been heard. He expressed his opinion that discussing the university's name to immortalize a historical personality was unnecessary. He remarked that the university's intention to immortalize Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's name was being presented as the only way to achieve his immortality, which he found to be an incorrect perspective. He indicated his disagreement with this viewpoint. Bhupesh Gupta continued by stating that the ongoing debate concerned the specific university proposal rather than dwelling on Nehru's biography. He highlighted the need to objectively evaluate the proposal's merits without excessive emphasis on the university's name. He noted the absence of a higher education institution in Delhi and stressed that the city deserved a university provided by the Central Government to address its educational requirements. He expressed contentment that the university would potentially offer opportunities for higher education in humanities, science, and technology in Delhi. However, he critiqued the manner in which the university bill had been conceived by Mr. Chagla, describing it as lacking in originality and excitement. Bhupesh Gupta questioned the intended beneficiaries of the university's education, particularly in the context of income disparities. He raised concerns about whether the university would be accessible to economically disadvantaged individuals or if it would cater primarily to the affluent. He rejected the notion of replicating prestigious foreign institutions li