Social Research Methods PDF

# Social Research Methods ## Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches ### Sigmund Grønmo ## **Chapter 10: Unstructured Interviews and Focus Groups** ### Learning Objectives * This chapter will teach you how to * Construct a guide for the interviews or the focus group convers...

# Social Research Methods ## Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches ### Sigmund Grønmo ## **Chapter 10: Unstructured Interviews and Focus Groups** ### Learning Objectives * This chapter will teach you how to * Construct a guide for the interviews or the focus group conversation * Use the guide in a flexible way during the data collection * Create good conditions for communication with respondents or focus group participants * Record the data obtained from respondents or focus groups * Handle typical problems during the data collection * Carry out online interviews or focus group conversations. ### Chapter Outline * Personal interviews and focus groups. * Personal interviews. * Preparing the data collection. * Implementing the data collection. * Typical problems during data collection. * Focus groups: Conversations and group dynamics. * Online interviews and focus groups. * Chapter highlights * Research examples. * Student exercises and questions. * Recommended literature. ### Personal Interviews and Focus Groups This chapter considers the collection of qualitative data based on respondents as the source. The researcher asks the respondents questions about the conditions to be studied, and the respondents' answers constitute the data for the study. When this questioning is intended to produce qualitative data, the design is unstructured, informal and flexible. The design is referred to as unstructured interviewing. This type of data collection may also be called semi-structured, informal or qualitative interviewing, reflecting that the interviewing may be carried out in different ways. Unstructured interviewing is a conversation between the researcher and the respondent, where the respondent is a single person. However, this type of data collection can also be based on conversations with several people at the same time. The researcher then asks questions and initiates discussions within a group of people. Since such group conversations typically are focused on specific topics, the group is referred to as a focus group. Unstructured interviewing and focus group conversations are conducted by the researchers themselves. Prior to the data collection, the researcher selects a number of topics to be included in all the interviews or group conversations, but the interviews or conversations are conducted in a flexible manner. How the data collection develops depends on what type of information the respondents or group participants contribute and how the communication develops. New questions may be formulated on the basis of the researcher's interpretation of the answers to the previous questions. Collection and analysis of data take place in parallel. The researcher is constantly open to unforeseen circumstances and is prepared to improve the design based on both empirical findings and methodological experience gained during the data collection. Since the data collection cannot be planned in a detailed manner, the researcher may have a very demanding role during the interview or focus group conversation. Traditionally, both unstructured interviews and focus group conversations have been based on face-to-face communication in physical meetings between the researcher and the respondents or focus group participants. However, new information and communication technologies have made it possible to organize online interviews and focus group conversations. This chapter starts with a discussion of personal interviews with individual respondents. Then, the particular features of focus group conversations will be examined, and, finally, some aspects of online interviews and focus groups will be presented. ### Personal Interviews The discussion of unstructured personal interviews refers to Table 10.1, which provides a schematic overview of the main features of unstructured interviewing. The table shows how the data collection is prepared and implemented, and the kinds of problems that are typically involved. **Table 10.1** Overview of the data collection in unstructured interviewing | Aspect of data collection | Characteristics of unstructured interviewing | | :----------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Preparations for data collection | Construct interview guide <br> Consider information requirements <br> Specify topics <br> Consider the form of communication | | Implementation of data collection | Determine the degree of transparency <br> Provide information to the respondents and agree on an interview <br> Conduct the interview <br> Establish a good communication situation <br> Use the guide as a basis <br> Consider the sequence of topics and formulate questions based on the development of the interview <br> Use audio recordings and/or notes <br> Make transcripts of audio recordings <br> Where appropriate, select additional respondents and interview them | | Typical problems during data collection | Communication between the researcher and the respondent may be poor <br> The researcher may influence the answers <br> The respondent's recall errors or self-presentation may affect the answers | ### Preparing the Data Collection Although unstructured interviewing cannot be planned in a detailed manner, there are some tasks that should be performed before data collection commences. The most important of these tasks will be described here. #### **Constructing the Interview Guide** An important part of the preparation for data collection is to construct an interview guide. The interview guide describes in broad terms how the interview will be conducted, focusing on the topics that will be discussed with the respondent. The guide is the researcher’s starting point and guideline for the interview. It should be sufficiently comprehensive and specific so that the researcher obtains the types of information that are relevant to the study, but it should also be so simple and general that each interview can be conducted in a flexible manner, adapted to the characteristic features of the particular respondent and the specific communication. The researcher must assess the information requirement in connection with the design of the interview guide. It is essential to think through the kind of information that should be obtained from the interviews. This assessment is based on the research questions to be addressed in the study and can be based on the general approaches for selecting information described in Chapter 7 (Table 7.3). For unstructured interviewing, the information requirements cannot be finalized before data collection commences. The researcher can constantly review and possibly revise the requirements for information on the basis of new substantive insights and new methodological experiences gained during the data collection process. Nevertheless, when designing the interview guide, it is important to make as thorough an assessment as possible of the information requirement before the data collection begins. The researcher can specify the topics of the interview based on this first clarification of the information requirements. As mentioned above, the overview of the topics is the main content of the interview guide. The full list of topics provides an overview of the types of information that the researcher initially intends to obtain during the interview. At the same time, the specification of different topics gives an initial, preliminary breakdown of the information into different dimensions and perhaps also into different categories. During the design of the interview guide it is recommended to evaluate what form of communication is most appropriate for the particular respondents who will be interviewed. The researcher should focus as much as possible on the respondents’ background, environment and culture, their activities, their modes of expression and forms of communication, and how they relate to their environment. Knowledge of such circumstances reinforces the researchers’ ability to express themselves to the respondents in an understandable way and to perceive and interpret the respondents’ statements correctly. In the nursing study (Gould and Fontenla, 2006), mentioned in Chapter 6, it was important to understand the nurses’ special forms of communication, as well as the issues that might be important to nurses at British hospitals at the time of the interview. The guide used in the nursing study is reproduced in Table 10.2. **Table 10.2** Example of interview guide for unstructured interviewing, from Gould and Fontenla (2006: 221) 1. Tell me about your job (details of grade, duties, length of time in post) 2. Has your current role changed since you have been in post? 3. What are the most positive aspects of your role? 4. What are the least positive aspects of your role? 5. Tell me about the opportunities you have received for continuing professional education and education 6. Tell me about the types of jobs you have had in the past (details of career breaks, changes of direction) 7. How do you see your career progressing? 8. To what extent do your own professional values coincide with those of the trust (details of achievement, progression, independence, economic return)? 9. Thinking back to when you came into nursing, is it all you expected it to be? 10. Have you ever thought of leaving this post and taking another nursing post? 11. Why did you think of changing? What keeps you here? 12. Have you ever thought of leaving nursing for a non-nursing post? Why was this? 13. Could you identify the three things that are most important in making your current post attractive? 14. What, if anything, could be done to make your post better? 15. Is there anything else you would like to add? #### **Degree of Transparency** Before starting the interview, the researcher must Decide on the degree of transparency with regard to the respondents. Interviewing cannot be conducted entirely covertly. However, although the researcher cannot hide the fact that a study is being conducted, there can be varying degrees of transparency regarding the purpose of the study. The respondents may get very detailed information about the research purpose, or they may get only a general or vague information about the study. In principle, there should be as much transparency as possible. In some cases, interview studies require permission from special agencies or public authorities. As pointed out in Chapter 3, there are differences between countries as to the rules and regulations governing whether permission is required, what type of permission might be required, how permission can be granted, and what agency can grant it. Typically, the purpose of such permission is to ensure that the study is based on all the ethical standards. The researcher must emphasize confidentiality, that all data about individuals should be treated confidentially, and anonymity, that it is not possible to identify the individual respondents in reports based on the interview data. In addition, the researcher must obtain informed consent from each respondent. In this regard, the respondents must be given information about the study and its purpose, as well as the emphasis on confidentiality and anonymity. The respondents should also be informed of their right to refuse to participate in the study or refuse to answer some of the questions. ### Implementing the Data Collection Unstructured interviewing is a flexible design. The implementation of data collection can therefore be demanding. Here it is described how the data collection is usually conducted. #### **Agreeing on the Interview** The implementation of data collection begins with the researcher informing the respondents and agreeing to conduct an interview. The information must be in accordance with all ethical standards, any conditions that might have been specified for permission to do the study, and the researcher’s decisions generally on the degree of transparency or openness of the study. At the same time, the information must be formulated and presented in such a way that the respondents are motivated to participate in the study, that they regard the study as important, and that they experience their own participation as interesting. Although this information may be provided orally at the start of the interviewing, the information should be available for the respondent in written form and preferably sent to the respondent in advance, before the interview takes place. #### **Interviewing** In unstructured interviewing, successful data collection depends on a good interaction and communication between the researcher and the respondent. Thus, it is important to establish good conditions for the communication. The choice of the time and venue for the interview should ensure that the interview can take place without interruptions or interference from family members, colleagues or others. The interview should take place at a venue where the respondent feels relaxed and at a time when the respondent is not too busy. The researcher should emphasize finding a good form of conversation and making the conversation as relaxed and norma¹ as possible, so that the respondents feel they are on the same wavelength as the researcher. In an article on gender-based sibling roles in Iran, it is emphasized that the researchers ‘worked to create a friendly and empathic atmosphere and attempted to be nondirective and non-judgmental’ (Nasrabadi et al., 2016: 700). The researcher must be open to initiatives from the respondent during the conversation, but must also direct the interview so that it concerns the topics that are relevant to the study. This steering of the interview is based on the interview guide. The guide is the researcher’s point of reference and checklist for conducting the interview. In the study by Gould and Fontenla (2006) mentioned above, the researchers considered it ‘important to allow the respondents themselves to identify factors which contributed to commitment to nursing and to their employing trust, and which encouraged them to remain in post, rather than suggesting possible reasons through the use of more focused questions’ (Gould and Fontenla, 2006: 215). However, the researchers were especially interested in the importance of continuing professional education as a factor, so if this was not mentioned by the respondents, ‘it was specifically introduced approximately half way through the interview to ensure that it was included’ (Gould and Fontenla, 2006: 215). Thus, the interview guide is used in a flexible manner. The researcher should ensure that all the Topics are covered during the interview, but should also consider the sequence of the topics and formulate questions based on the development of the interview. The researcher listens to the respondent’s answers, interprets the answers and follows up with new questions based on these interpretations. The interviewer may use various kinds of prompts to stimulate the respondent to talk about relevant topics, and different types of probes to clarify the content and meaning of answers from the respondent. In this way, the respondent’s answers can be elaborated on and clarified. Thus, during the interview the researcher obtains an increasingly improved basis for addressing relevant topics and asking fruitful questions. The researcher is open to new topics that the respondents introduce into the conversation, but must also ensure that very talkative respondents do not take control and sidetrack the interview or take it in irrelevant or unhelpful directions. In the study of gender-based sibling roles in Iran mentioned above, the interviewers ‘asked probing or complementary questions if there was a need to clarify the participants’ perceptions or experiences’ (Nasrabadi et al., 2016: 700). It is important to ensure a good flow in the conversation and good transitions between the questions. The background to the conversation topics and the questions should be explained, and it is recommended to complete one topic before introducing a new topic, so that repetition can be avoided. The typical procedure for the interview is To start with easy, simple and interesting topics in order to find a good format and flow. It is often a good idea to start with questions like these: ‘Could you describe a typical day at your work?’ or ‘Could you tell me about your family activities last weekend?’ More serious, complicated but central topics can then be taken up, and these will usually form the main part of the interview. Sensitive or controversial questions are usually raised towards the end of the interview. In the event that such questions create emotional or other problems for further communication, it is recommended to refrain from raising them until most of the interview has been completed. However, the interview should be concluded with easy and uncomplicated questions, so that both the researcher and the respondent are left feeling good after the conversation and can round off their communication in a good atmosphere. The interview may last for a relatively long time, sometimes several hours. For example, in the study of gender-based sibling roles by Nasrabadi et al. (2016), the interviews lasted between 60 and 75 minutes. However, it is important to assess the duration individually for each study, in view of not only the information requirements of the study, but also what is appropriate for the particular respondents in the study. If respondents become too tired, the useful information obtained from the interview may be limited. In long interviews, it may be necessary to take small breaks, so that both the researcher and the interviewer can relax, clear their minds and gather their thoughts. #### **Data Recording** Data recording is usually based on audio recording. In some cases, a camera can also be used to video-record the interview. This assumes that the respondent approves the use of audio tapes and any video camera before the interview starts. Sometimes respondents may feel uncomfortable with devices such as microphones and cameras, but experience shows that most respondents quickly get used to them. Instead of audio recordings, the data recording can be based on the researcher’s notes from the interview. However, it is very difficult to take note of what is said by both the researcher and the respondent while also listening to the respondent, interpreting the answers, formulating new questions and managing the development of the interview along relevant and useful paths. As a rule, the researcher must settle for taking note of keywords during the interview. Complete notes or minutes should be prepared based on the keywords as soon as possible after the interview. Such notes are essential if the respondent refuses to agree to the use of audio recordings. However, even when using audio recording, it is recommended that the researcher takes supplementary notes during the interview, partly to maintain an overview of the steering and development of the interview, and partly to document circumstances that are not included in the audio tape. This could be observations of the respondent’s body language, or it could be impressions, experiences, assessments and interpretations, which may be useful as background for subsequent interviews or analyses of the data. Audio recordings cannot be used directly in data analyses, but must be transcribed. These transcriptions constitute the data. In both studies mentioned above, all interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for the data analysis (Gould and Fontenla, 2006; Nasrabadi et al., 2016). It is recommended that each respondent receives a copy of the transcription of their interview for review, correction and approval. This is an additional assurance of the data quality. Respondents sometimes require an opportunity to correct and approve the transcription as a condition for conducting the interview. This is especially common among respondents who belong to social elites. #### **Data Analysis in Parallel with Data Collection** The data analysis takes place partly in parallel with the data collection. The researcher’s interpretation of the respondent’s answers in order to formulate new questions during the interview is a form of analysis. In addition, notes, recordings and transcriptions from interviews are analysed as the data collection is developed. Not only does this provide an increasing degree of insight into the research questions to be addressed. It also provides methodological experiences that are important for further data collection. The interview guide and the interview process may be improved. In addition, the researcher obtains a better basis for strategic selection of new respondents. As the researcher gradually obtains an increased understanding of which respondents can contribute relevant and fruitful information, additional respondents may be selected, and the new respondents can be interviewed. Strategies and methods for analysing qualitative data, including data collected in unstructured interviews and focus groups, are explained in Chapter 16. #### **Typical Problems during Data Collection** Unstructured interviewing is based on interaction or communication between two parties in order for one party to receive information from the other. Typical problems during this data collection process may be related to each of the parties or the interaction between them. A typical problem associated with the interaction process during data collection is poor communication between the researcher and the respondent. Most likely, this means that the information exchange will be limited. The researcher will not be able to access all of the relevant information that the respondent possesses. Poor commu-nication can also mean that the two parties misunderstand each other, that the respondent does not understand the questions or does not understand what type of information the researcher wants, and that the researcher misinterprets the information provided by the respondent. This impairs the quality of the data. Researchers may prevent or reduce these communication problems by assessing the form of communication prior to conducting the interview, by finding the most appropriate way of communicating with the particular respondents in the study, and by creating a good communication situation and a relaxed atmosphere during the interview. Another typical problem is that the researcher may influence the answers provided by the respondent. The researcher may appear or act in a manner that stimulates or provokes the respondents to express themselves in certain ways. For example, the researcher may ask leading questions or otherwise give the impression that the respondent is expected to provide specific answers. The respondent’s answers can also be influenced by the researcher’s appearance or characteristics. Unstructured interviewing requires special assessments of how the researcher’s gender may affect the respondents’ responses. This may vary depending on both the type of topic the interview is about, and the type of respondents being interviewed. These problems also show the importance of the researcher working systematically to find a neutral and appropriate form of communication and to develop a safe and reassuring atmosphere during the interview. Some problems that occur during data collection are related to the respondent’s characteristics. The most common of these problems is that the respondent’s recall errors or self-presentation can affect the answers given. Respondents may provide incorrect information about factual matters because they do not remember properly or because they have repressed parts of what actually happened. The risk of such recall errors is particularly high if the respondents are asked about events that occurred a long time before the interview is conducted. Respondents may also provide false information about their own actions or opinions because they wish to present themselves in a particularly favourable light to the researcher. Such problems are especially important if the interview is about circumstances that are controversial, stressful or deviant in relation to dominant social norms. It is a challenge for the researcher to detect such problems during the interview. Both recall errors and self-presentation can be detected and counteracted by interpreting different answers in relation to each other and by asking different follow-up questions, where the respondent is asked to clarify and elaborate on their answers. No matter how much the researcher strives to avoid or reduce these problems during the data collection, It is important to consider how the final data material may be affected by different sources of error. Such assessments must be made during the analysis of the data and the interpretation of the findings. ### Focus Groups: Conversations and Group Dynamics Focus groups are very similar to unstructured personal interviews. The main difference refers to the number of respondents that are involved in each conversation. Whereas a personal interview Is a separate conversation with only one respondent, a focus group involves conversation with several respondents at the same time. Moreover, the communication in a focus group is not only limited to conversation between the interviewer and each of the respondents. It also includes conversations or discussions among all the respondents within the group. In a focus group, the respondents are called group participants, and the researcher acts as a moderator of the discussion in the group. In addition to asking questions, the moderator also steers the discussion in the group. Although the discussion is unstructured and flexible, it is based on a discussion guide, which is similar to the interview guide in unstructured interviews. The construction of the guide is based on the same type of preparations as for personal interviews, including assessments of information requirements and specification of topics for the data collection. The guide for the focus group lists the topics that should be covered in the group discussion. The moderator introduces each of these topics, typically as a question for responses from the participants and discussion in the group. The formulation of the topics or questions and the order in which they are introduced are adapted to the development of the conversation in the group. Furthermore, the moderator asks follow-up questions for clarification and may introduce additional Topics for further discussion. The group discussion is recorded in the same ways as unstructured personal interviews, typically as audio or video recordings, which are transcribed for data analysis. The data analysis is conducted in parallel with the data collection. Focus groups were used in a study of transport infrastructure in Sweden (Folkeson et al., 2013). The study was based on two focus groups, one group in each of the two major cities. The discussion guide consisted of only five questions, but additional questions and follow-up questions were asked by the group moderators. In addition to transcribed audio recording of the group discussions, the data analysis was based on notes made by the moderators during the discussions. One of the focus group meetings lasted 60 minutes, and the other group meeting lasted 80 minutes (Folkeson et al., 2013: 246). Compared to personal interviews, the additional benefit of focus groups is that the group dynamics, in particular the discussion among the group participants, may provide more and different information on the topics in the study. The purpose is to obtain a variety of views, assessments and creative associations about specific relatively delimited topics. The interaction among the participants may stimulate the memory of each participant and motivate all participants to provide information about their experiences, ideas and attitudes. Expectations and reactions from other participants in the group may encourage each participant to contribute actively with responses, opinions and clarifications. It is a challenge for the moderator to be sensitive to the particular development of the discussion in the group, in order to ensure that new information and perspectives from participants are stimulated and followed up. However, it is also a challenge to avoid or prevent discussions that are irrelevant or of no use to the study and its research questions. Successful use of focus groups requires that the group is of appropriate size, usually 5-10 participants. The two focus groups in the Swedish study mentioned above included nine women and five men (Folkeson et al., 2013: 246). If the group Is too large, it will be difficult to activate all participants. If the group is too small, it will be difficult to obtain a creative and dynamic discussion. In addition to the group size, the composition of the focus group is also important. It is recommended to recruit group participants who are able and willing to communicate with one another on equal terms, although they may have different backgrounds, experiences and views. In any event, it is a challenge for the moderator during the focus group conversation to make sure that all participants are stimulated to respond to the questions and contribute to the discussion. Some participants may need special attention and motivation to be active in the group’s communication, and no participant should be allowed to dominate the communication. The moderator has to find a good balance between various inputs from each participant in the group and the general discussion in the group as a whole. The typical problems that were discussed in connection with unstructured interviewing are relevant also in focus group conversations, although in somewhat different ways. Communication problems may be more serious in focus groups than they are in interviews, since such problems may arise both between the moderator and the participants, and between the participants themselves. To avoid or handle such problems is a special challenge for the recruitment of group participants, and for the moderation of the group discussions. Like respondents in personal interviews, focus group participants may be influenced by the researcher. In addition, they may be influenced by other participants in the group, especially by dominant participants. It may be more difficult to express controversial or deviant opinions, and participants may be tempted to give responses that they think are expected or desirable. On the other hand, the researcher’s influence and the participants’ influence may counteract each other. The presence of other participants may give each participant the strength to resist any possible influence from the researcher, and the researcher may use their position as moderator to ensure that each participant feels confident in relation to all other participants, and that all views are regarded as equally legitimate. In focus groups, the risk of recall errors may be reduced by the fact that several participants provide responses to the same questions. The memory of each respondent may be stimulated and refreshed by the responses from other participants. On the other hand, participants may be influenced to harmonize their own memory with responses from other participants, especially responses provided by dominant participants in the group. The problem of self-presentation is related to the risk that some focus group participants may become particularly dominant in the discussion. The reason for such dominance might be that these participants want to make an impression on the other participants in the group. On the other hand, the presence of the other participants may make it more difficult to stand out in a dominant way, especially if all or most of the group participants are actively engaged in the discussion. ### Online Interviews and Focus Groups Traditionally, unstructured interviews and focus groups have been based on face-to-face conversations in physical meetings between the researcher and the respondents. Due to the development of new information and communication technologies, the web can now be used to organize online interviews and focus groups. The researcher does not meet the respondents or the focus group participants physically, and the focus group participants do not get together in physical meetings. All communication takes place on the web. This communication can be synchronous or asynchronous. In a synchronous interview the researcher and the respondent communicate with each other simultaneously, and in a synchronous focus group both the researcher and all group participants interact at the same time. Such interviews or focus groups can be conducted by means of Skype or other software programs for chatting, conferences or simultaneous communication between two or more participants. In an asynchronous interview the respondent answers the researcher’s question after some time, and the next question is asked some time after the previous response. Similarly, in an asynchronous focus group the researcher’s questions and the participants' responses and comments are presented sequentially over a time period. For this purpose, it is possible to use e-mails as well as various types of online forums. If it is not possible to use an existing online forum, the researcher may create a new forum for the particular study. Asynchronous online focus groups were used In a Dutch study of parents’ reasons for refusing to vaccinate their children (Harmsen et al., 2013). The researchers created a special online forum for the study. A sample of parents who had refused to vaccinate their children received a letter about the study with an invitation to participate in a focus group. Those who wanted to participate received an e-mail with details about how they could join the forum as a focus group participant. Eight focus groups, including 60 participants in total, were organized. Each group was conducted over a period of 5 days. Each day the researcher presented one question from the discussion guide, and the participants could anonymously present their responses and comments. All questions, responses and comments remained open for all participants during the whole period of the focus group. Apart from the virtual communication and the possibility of asynchronous communication in online interviews and focus groups, there are not many differences between online and traditional face-to-face use of this design for data collection. Online data collection is prepared in the same way as face-to-face data collection. The basic procedures for the implementation of the data collection are also the same in online and face-to-face use of interviews and focus groups. However, one particular advantage of interviews or focus groups based on chatting programs, e-mails or online forums is that transcripts of the data are generated automatically. Online interviews and focus groups are easy and inexpensive to conduct, and they can be used with respondents or group participants from large geographic areas. However, it may be difficult to verify the identity of the respondents and group participants. Asynchronous online interviews and focus groups can be used in studies that include respondents or participants from different time zones, since responses or comments can be given whenever it is most convenient. Furthermore, this means that the respondents can take time to think about their responses before giving them. Such planned responses may be more accurate and more founded than spontaneous responses, but the planning may also lead to responses that are believed to be politically correct or socially desirable. In asynchronous focus groups the participants can be anonymous in relation to the other participants, and the risk that some participants are dominated or influenced by other participants is relatively low. However, in such data collection, It may be difficult to keep the participants' attention over the duration of the focus group, and the drop-out risk may be high ### Chapter Highlights * Unstructured interviewing is conducted by the researchers themselves in the form of conversations with the respondents. * Unstructured interviewing is a flexible design, but the researcher prepares an interview guide and considers the degree of openness before carrying out the data collection process. * During the data collection in unstructured interviewing, it is important to provide information to the respondents and to reach an agreement about the interview, to establish a good communication situation, to base the process on the guide and to tailor the interview to the individual respondent, to Ensure good data recording and to analyse the material as the data collection proceeds. * The following problems are typical for data collection based on unstructured interviews: 1 The communication between the researcher and the respondent may be poor 2 The researcher may influence the answers 3 The respondent's recall errors or self-presentation may affect the answers. * Focus group conversations are similar to unstructured personal interviews. The group typically includes 5-10 participants, with the researcher as moderator for the discussion in the group. The discussion is based on a guide, which is used in a flexible way. * Compared to unstructured personal interviews, the additional benefit of focus groups is the information provided in the dynamic discussion among the participants. * It is a challenge for the moderator to avoid irrelevant discussions and ensure that all participants are equally active in the group. * Unstructured interviews and focus groups may be conducted online. * Online interviews and focus groups may be synchronous or asynchronous. ### Research Examples I recommend that you read the publications used as research examples in this chapter. Two of the articles are examples of the use of unstructured personal interviews: * **Gould, Dinah, and Marina Fontenla, (2006) ‘Commitment to nursing: Results of a qualitative interview study’, *Journal of Nursing Management* 14, 213-221.** This article presents a study of how different factors influence nurses’ job satisfaction as well as their commitment to the nursing profession and to the organization or institution where they work. Unstructured interviews were carried out with 27 nurses from two different hospitals in the UK. The interviewing was based on a guide with open-ended questions, allowing the respondents themselves to identify factors that influenced their commitment to nursing and their employing hospital. The findings indicate that a family-friendly policy is the most important factor for ensuring commitment, and that professional autonomy also is important for the nurses’ professional and organizational commitment. * **Nasrabadi, Alireza Nikbakht, Ali Montazeri, Hasan Eftekhar Ardebili, Setareh Homami, Yousef Karimi, Saharnaz Nedjat, Mahdi Moshki, and Ali Akbar Mansourian (2016) ‘Exploring gender-based sibling roles: A qualitative study on contemporary Iranian families’, *Journal of Family Issues* 37(5), 692-716.** The study presented in this article examines perceptions of gender-based sibling roles in Iran. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 Iranian married men and women between 21 and 66 years of age. The interview guide included only three general questions, but probing or complementary questions were asked for clarification of perceptions and experiences. The findings of the study show some role differences between men and women. Six role categories are found for sisters, and four role categories are described for brothers. Three of these categories are common to both brothers and sisters. The third article exemplifies the use of focus groups: * **Folkeson, Lennart, Hans Antonson, and J. O. Helldin (2013) ‘Planners’ views on cumulative effects: A focus-group study concerning transport infrastructure planning in Sweden’, *Land Use Policy* 30(1), 243-253.** This article presents a study of views and experiences among Swedish transport infrastructure planners regarding the cumulative effects of various actions, especially the cumulative environmental effects of combinations of past, present and future actions. The study was based on two focus groups, one in Stockholm, and one in Malmö. The two groups included nine women and five men with different roles in transport infrastructure, spatial planning, and a non-governmental organization. Five questions were presented for discussion in the focus groups. The researchers, who were moderators of the group discussions, asked additional or follow-up questions. The discussions were audio-recorded, but the researchers also made notes on the conversation in the group and the reactions of the group participants. The findings show that there is only limited attention to cumulative effects among the planners, but the focus group discussions led to several suggestions as to how to increase this attention in the planning processes. The fourth article exemplifies the use of online focus groups: * **Harmsen, Irene A., Liesbeth Mollema, Robert A. C. Ruiter, Theo G. W. Paulussen, Hester E. de Melker, and Gerjo Kok (2013) ‘Why parents refuse childhood vaccination: A qualitative study using online focus groups’, *BMC Public Health* 13, 1183.** This article presents a study of parents who refuse vaccination of their children, with emphasis on the reasons for this refusal. Parents with children (0-4 years) only partially vaccinated or not vaccinated were selected for online focus groups. Eight asynchronous focus groups were included in the study. Each group was conducted over 5 days during a week. The participants could log in and respond to questions from the researcher as well as comment on responses from other participants. The findings show that there are multiple reasons for parents' refusal to vaccinate their children. ### Student Exercises and Questions * What is an interview guide? * How is the interview guide used in unstructured interviewing? * What are the main differences between unstructured personal interviews and focus groups? * Why is the size of the group important in studies based on focus groups? * What are the differences between synchronous and asynchronous use of online focus groups? * Discuss how the study conditions for various groups of students at a university could be examined by means of focus groups. * Construct a guide for an unstructured interview about people's leisure activities. Select three other students as respondents and use the guide in unstructured interviews with each of the selected students. ### Recommended Literature * Barbour, Rosaline (2018) *Doing Focus Groups* (2nd edn). London: Sage. * Brinkmann, Svend, and Steinar Kvale (2018) *Doing Interviews* (2nd edn). London: Sage. * James, Nalita, and Hugh Busher (2014) *Online Interviewing*. London: Sage * King, Nigel, Christine Horrocks, and Joanna Brooks (2018) *Interviews in Qualitative Research* (2nd edn). London: Sage.