Sem 3 Case 3 PDF

#separator:tab #html:false What is anterograde amnesia? What is memory What is the basic memory process? What is recall in Basic memory process? What is recognition in Basic memory process? Recognition - Identify information Were the words below on the list?...

#separator:tab #html:false What is anterograde amnesia? What is memory What is the basic memory process? What is recall in Basic memory process? What is recognition in Basic memory process? Recognition - Identify information Were the words below on the list? What is The Multi-Store Model? What is sensory memory? What is short term memory? What is long term memory? What is the basis of the working memeory theory? What is the central executive? Central executive - allocates limited attention resources to the other components of working memory. Performs cognitive tasks such as problem solving. What is the Phonological loop? Phonological loop - stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds / words in a continuous loop: the articulatory process. (e.g. repeating a phone number over and over again) What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad? Visuo-spatial sketchpad - stores visual and spatial information. Engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones. (e.g. counting windows on a house) What is the episodic buffer? Episodic buffer - dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information & chronological ordering (e.g. the memory of a story/event. Also has links to LTM & semantic meaning) What is the basis of the Levels of Processing model? What is encoding? Types of long term memory Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve Trace decay of forgetting theory Forgetting in short term memory Memories leaves a trace in the brain Fading of trace after 15-30 secs Displacement from STM STM can only hold small amounts of information When STM is ‘full’ new information displaces old information and takes its place Interference Theory Memory can be disrupted/interfered with what we have previously learned Information in LTM may become confused with other information during encoding Early childhood memories graph How can false memories be caused? Source confusion The memory of information as being obtained from one source when it was in fact obtained from another. Arousal Performance Curve Main Theories of Memory Basic Memory Processes Multi-Store Model Working-Memory Theory Levels of Processing Model Explicit vs Implicit Memory Herman Ebbinghaus Theories of Forgetting False Memories What are the key differences between explicit and implicit memory? Explicit Memory (Declarative):Consciously recalled, includes episodic (personal events) and semantic (facts) memory.Example: Remembering a holiday or knowing a scientific fact.Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative):Knowledge recalled without conscious awareness, includes procedural memory (skills) and priming.Example: Knowing how to ride a bike or recognizing related words without realizing it. What role does the hippocampus play in long-term memory? Essential for memory consolidation, specifically in declarative (explicit) memory formation.Damage to hippocampus results in an inability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia) but preserves motor skills and procedural learning.Involved in transferring short-term memories into long-term storage. What did the case of Henry Molaison (HM) reveal about memory? HM underwent surgery to treat severe epilepsy, leading to anterograde amnesia (inability to form new declarative memories).Could still learn motor skills, showing distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory.Highlighted the hippocampus’ role in episodic and semantic memory but not procedural memory. Explain the significance of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. Shows that memory retention decreases rapidly after initial learning but stabilizes with repeated exposure.The rate of forgetting depends on factors like material difficulty, meaningfulness, and repetition.Demonstrates the effectiveness of spaced repetition and active recall in reducing memory decay. How does trace decay theory explain forgetting in short-term memory (STM)? Trace decay theory posits that memories leave a physical trace in the brain, which fades over time, typically within 15-30 seconds in STM.Lack of rehearsal accelerates decay, making it difficult to retain information in STM without reinforcement. How does the displacement theory apply to STM? STM has a limited capacity (7 ± 2 items). When full, new information displaces older information.Demonstrates the fragile nature of STM and the importance of chunking or rehearsal to retain information longer. What is the interference theory in long-term memory (LTM)? Suggests that new information can interfere with old information during encoding or retrieval.Proactive interference: Old memories interfere with new memories.Retroactive interference: New memories disrupt the recall of old memories.Example: Learning a new phone number may cause confusion with an old one. What is childhood amnesia, and why does it occur? Childhood amnesia refers to the inability to recall memories from early childhood (before age 3-4).Potential reasons: Underdevelopment of the hippocampus, lack of language skills, or different encoding mechanisms during early development. What is source confusion in the context of false memories? Occurs when a person misattributes the source of a memory.Example: A witness may believe they saw something that was only suggested or mentioned by someone else (e.g., a police officer).Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated this in her work on false memories. Describe the DRM task and its use in memory research. "The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task is designed to study false memories.Participants are presented with a list of related words (e.g., needle, thread, pin), and later often recall a critical lure (a word like ""needle"" that was not actually presented).Demonstrates the susceptibility of memory to suggestion and false recall." How do priming effects demonstrate implicit memory? "Priming occurs when exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious awareness.Example: If a person hears the word ""bread,"" they are more likely to recognize the word ""butter"" faster than an unrelated word like ""doctor.""Shows how previous experiences affect current behavior unconsciously." What is the arousal-performance curve, and how does it relate to memory? Describes the relationship between arousal (stress) and performance.Optimal arousal leads to peak performance, but excessive anxiety causes performance to drop.Clinical relevance: Patients may recall less information from a consultation when their anxiety is high, especially at the end. How does sleep influence memory consolidation? Sleep plays a crucial role in consolidating long-term memories, particularly in hippocampal-dependent memories.Sleep deprivation disrupts this process, leading to impaired memory consolidation.Key for both declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memories. Explain the levels of processing theory. Proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972), this theory states that memory retention is based on the depth of processing.Deeper processing (semantic, meaningful) leads to stronger, more durable memories than shallow processing (structural or phonemic).Encourages elaborative rehearsal over simple repetition. How does working memory differ from short-term memory (STM)? Working memory (Baddeley) is an elaboration of STM, focusing on manipulating information rather than just storing it.Consists of central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.Critical for tasks requiring active processing, such as problem-solving or mental arithmetic. What is the role of the central executive in working memory? The central executive is the control center of working memory.Allocates attention and resources to other components (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad).Involved in cognitive tasks like problem-solving and decision-making. How does the episodic buffer contribute to memory? The episodic buffer integrates information from multiple sources (visual, auditory, and spatial) into a coherent episode.Links working memory to long-term memory and helps in organizing information chronologically.Essential for multi-sensory experiences and memory coherence. What is the phonological loop, and what role does it play in memory? The phonological loop stores and manipulates auditory information.Composed of two components: phonological store (holds sound information) and articulatory rehearsal process (repeats sounds or words to keep them in working memory).Crucial for verbal memory and tasks like remembering a phone number. What is procedural memory, and which brain areas are involved? Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory involving motor skills and learned behaviors (e.g., riding a bike).Key brain areas: Basal ganglia (striatum) and cerebellum, which are responsible for motor learning and coordination. What is the primary role of the frontal lobe in cognition? Motor function (Primary motor cortex)Speech production (Broca's area)Executive functions (planning, decision-making)Personality and social conductRegulates behavior, attention, and impulse controlInvolved in working memory and abstract thought How does damage to the frontal lobe manifest in patients? Altered social behavior, reduced empathy, and changes in personalityDisinhibition: socially inappropriate behaviorImpaired executive function: difficulty planning and decision-makingSpeech production difficulties: impaired grammatical expression (Broca’s aphasia) Describe Phineas Gage's case and its significance in understanding the frontal lobe. "Phineas Gage suffered a frontal lobe injury from an iron rod.Survived but exhibited profound personality changes.Became impulsive, irritable, irresponsible—no longer ""Gage"".Demonstrated the role of the frontal lobe in social conduct and personality." What are the main cognitive assessments used to test frontal lobe function? Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Tests rule abstraction and flexibility.Stroop Test: Measures response inhibition.Brixton Test: Tests rule abstraction and pattern recognition. What is hemispatial neglect, and which part of the brain is responsible for it? A condition where individuals ignore one side of space (usually left).Common after damage to the right parietal lobe.Example: ignoring food on one side of the plate, shaving only one side of the face. What cognitive functions are associated with the parietal lobe? Spatial awareness and direction.Calculation and numerical skills.Sensation (somatosensory processing).Visual localization and visuospatial cognition. What are the symptoms of parietal lobe dysfunction? Impaired sense of direction.Difficulty with spatial tasks, such as dressing (dressing apraxia) or tying shoelaces.Dyscalculia (difficulty with calculations).Hemispatial neglect. What clinical assessments are used to evaluate parietal lobe function? Visual inattention tests.Cube counting and money roadmap tests (for spatial cognition).Copying simple geometric shapes or drawing a clock (constructional apraxia). Describe the clinical importance of the occipital lobe. Primary function: visual processing.Perception of depth, distance, color, and objects.Recognition of faces (prosopagnosia if impaired).Reading and object perception. What are the consequences of occipital lobe dysfunction? Visual agnosia: inability to recognize objects.Prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces.Difficulty with reading or visual perception, often leading patients to see opticians repeatedly. What tests assess visual perception in the occipital lobe? Visual field testing: checks peripheral vision.Tests for color discrimination.Object identification and face perception tests. What cognitive functions are associated with the temporal lobe? Auditory processing and speech comprehension (Wernicke’s area).Memory (especially in the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus).Semantic knowledge: meaning of words, objects, and faces. Explain Wernicke's aphasia and its characteristics. Caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe.Fluent, effortless speech that is often meaningless.Severe impairment in language comprehension. What role does the hippocampus play in memory formation? Critical for the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term memories.Located in the medial temporal lobe.Damage (e.g., in the case of Henry Molaison) leads to an inability to form new memories. What are the signs of memory dysfunction in the temporal lobe? Repetitive questions or statements.Forgetting recent conversations or misplacing items.Difficulty managing appointments or remembering the day/date. How is memory assessed clinically in patients with temporal lobe dysfunction? Orientation: Asking about the year, month, or day.Recall tests: name and address, short stories, list of items.Delayed recall tasks. Describe the process of speech production in the brain. Speech is initiated in Broca’s area (frontal lobe).Speech comprehension occurs in Wernicke’s area (temporal lobe).These areas communicate via the arcuate fasciculus. What is conduction aphasia, and what causes it? Caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, which connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.Symptoms: phonemic errors, impaired repetition of sentences. What are the two networks involved in attention, and what do they do? Dorsal Attention Network: Enables voluntary, sustained focus and concentration.Ventral Attention Network: Responsible for detecting salient stimuli and redirecting attention when necessary. How do the frontal and parietal lobes work together in attention? Attention is distributed across frontal-parietal networks.Frontal eye fields (frontal lobe) and superior parietal lobule are key regions in the dorsal attention network.Temporal-parietal junction contributes to the ventral attention network, allowing redirection of focus. How is executive function assessed in the clinical setting? Clinical interview for behavioral changes.Tests like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Brixton Test, and Stroop Test to assess rule abstraction, flexibility, and inhibition. How does the brain integrate multiple cognitive functions to optimize behavior? Different brain regions, like the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, work together.Networks like attention, language, and memory are distributed across the brain, communicating to coordinate functions. What are the functions of the primary motor cortex? Located in the frontal lobe.Controls voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles.Critical for movement initiation. Describe Broca’s aphasia and its symptoms. Caused by damage to Broca’s area in the left frontal lobe.Characterized by effortful, halting speech, and difficulty forming sentences.Speech comprehension is generally intact. What is immediate working memory, and where is it processed? Holds short-term information needed for tasks (e.g., remembering a phone number).Processed in the posterior parietal lobe. What types of memory are mediated by the anterior temporal lobe? Semantic memory: stores knowledge about the world, meaning of words, and recognition of objects and faces. How is spatial cognition assessed in clinic? Tests of visual localization (e.g., cube counting, money roadmap test).Constructional apraxia tests: copying shapes or drawing clocks. What are the visual impairments seen with occipital lobe damage? Visual agnosia (difficulty recognizing objects).Prosopagnosia (difficulty recognizing faces).Difficulty reading or impaired depth perception. How does the parietal lobe contribute to body awareness? Processes somatosensory information, contributing to our sense of touch, pressure, and temperature.Important for spatial awareness and proprioception (sense of body position). What is the Stroop Test, and what does it measure? Measures response inhibition by asking participants to name the color of the ink rather than the word.Assesses the brain’s ability to inhibit automatic responses. What is the role of Broca’s area, and what happens if it is damaged? Broca’s area is located in the left frontal lobe and is crucial for speech production.Damage causes Broca’s aphasia: Effortful, ungrammatical speech with intact comprehension. What is Wernicke’s aphasia? Caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in the left temporal lobe.Results in fluent but meaningless speech, with poor comprehension of spoken language. What are the functions of the hippocampus? Crucial for consolidating short-term memory into long-term memory.Key structure in episodic memory.Named for its seahorse-like shape. Describe the dorsal and ventral attention networks. Dorsal attention network: Sustains focus and ignores distractions (Frontal eye fields & superior parietal).Ventral attention network: Detects and responds to new stimuli, lateralized to the right hemisphere. What is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and what does it assess? Assesses the ability to shift cognitive strategies in response to changing rules.Measures abstract reasoning and executive function by requiring patients to match cards by different categories (e.g., color, shape). Explain the clinical significance of the Stroop Test. Assesses response inhibition by asking patients to name the ink color while ignoring the printed word.Tests the ability to inhibit automatic responses. How do the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus relate to memory? Medial temporal lobe and hippocampus are critical for memory consolidation.Damage, as seen in Henry Molaison, results in severe anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories). What are the clinical signs of dysfunction in the frontal lobe? Impulsivity, irritability, and loss of social inhibition.Changes in personality and decreased empathy.Executive dysfunction: Difficulty with planning, organizing, and abstract thought. What is dementia? Acquired loss of cognitive function that impairs daily living. Often neurodegenerative (e.g., Alzheimer's), but not always. What is the global prevalence of dementia? 50 million cases worldwide (2015). Predicted to rise to 75 million by 2030. Significant healthcare and economic burden. What are the cognitive states associated with aging? Normal aging: Cognitive slowdown but independence maintained.MCI (Mild Cognitive Impairment): Impairment in 1-2 cognitive domains, does not interfere with daily life.Dementia: Severe cognitive decline, affecting daily life and independence. What neuroanatomical changes occur in normal aging? Decreased gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volume.Reduced synaptic density.Decline in functional connectivity (fMRI shows this). What is Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)? Cognitive decline in 1-2 domains (e.g., memory, attention).Does not significantly impair daily activities.Often a precursor to dementia. What are the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease? Amyloid-beta plaques (extracellular).Tau neurofibrillary tangles (intracellular).Widespread neurodegeneration, especially in the hippocampus and cortex. What is the Cholinergic Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease? Deficiency in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT).Loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain.Memory and attention deficits due to acetylcholine deficiency. What cholinergic treatments are used in Alzheimer's disease? DonepezilGalantamineRivastigmine (Cholinesterase inhibitors) Enhance acetylcholine levels to improve memory and cognition. How does amyloid-beta form in Alzheimer's disease? Derived from Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP).Cleaved by β-secretase and γ-secretase.Forms sticky amyloid-beta plaques outside neurons. What is tau and its role in Alzheimer's? Hyperphosphorylated tau forms neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons.Disrupts microtubules, leading to cell death.Tau deposition correlates with brain atrophy and cognitive decline. What is the Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis? Amyloid-beta accumulation is the primary trigger for Alzheimer's pathology.Leads to tau tangles, synaptic dysfunction, and neuronal death. What genetic mutations are associated with Alzheimer’s disease? APP mutations (amyloid precursor protein).PSEN1 and PSEN2 mutations (presenilin 1 and 2).Associated with early-onset familial Alzheimer’s disease. Role of the APOE gene in Alzheimer’s disease? APOE ε4 allele increases risk of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease.Reduces amyloid clearance.Increases risk by 3x (one copy), up to 15x (two copies). How does amyloid-beta relate to Alzheimer’s symptoms? Amyloid-beta buildup begins over 10 years before clinical symptoms.Does not directly correlate with symptom severity. How does tau pathology spread in Alzheimer's disease? Begins in the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus).Spreads to the temporal and parietal lobes.Correlates with symptom progression and brain atrophy. What is the role of tau mutations (MAPT gene) in Alzheimer's? MAPT mutations cause tauopathies but not Alzheimer’s.Causes frontotemporal dementia (FTD) due to tau isoform accumulation. What role do neurotransmitters play in Alzheimer's disease? Loss of cholinergic neurons from the basal forebrain (nucleus basalis of Meynert).Reduces acetylcholine, leading to memory and attention deficits. What environmental factors contribute to Alzheimer's disease? Sleep deprivationCardiovascular risk factors (hypertension).Low education level, sensory impairment (hearing aids can reduce risk). What are non-cognitive symptoms seen in Alzheimer’s disease? Behavioral changes: Apathy, irritability, aggression.Social withdrawal, mood swings.Disinhibition, anxiety, and agitation. What pharmacological treatments are used in the early stages of Alzheimer’s? Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil, Rivastigmine, Galantamine).Memory-enhancing drugs to slow cognitive decline.Antidepressants for mood disturbances. What non-pharmacological strategies are used for Alzheimer’s care? Structured routines and memory aids.Patient and caregiver education.Social engagement and group activities. How is brain atrophy linked to Alzheimer's symptoms? Hippocampal atrophy linked to memory loss.Parietal atrophy linked to visuospatial deficits.Global atrophy correlates with overall cognitive decline. What are the imaging findings in Alzheimer’s disease (MRI and PET)? MRI: Medial temporal lobe atrophy, enlarged ventricles.FDG-PET: Shows parietal and temporal hypometabolism. What is the role of amyloid PET scans in diagnosing Alzheimer’s? Detects amyloid-beta plaques in vivo. Often combined with clinical symptoms and other biomarkers for diagnosis. What CSF biomarkers are used to diagnose Alzheimer’s? Amyloid-beta and phosphorylated tau in CSF indicate Alzheimer’s pathology.Can be detected before clinical symptoms arise. How does Alzheimer's pathology differ from normal aging? Normal aging: Gradual, mild cognitive decline, no significant atrophy.Alzheimer’s: Severe brain atrophy, amyloid and tau pathology, synapse loss. How does Alzheimer’s affect visuospatial abilities? Difficulty navigating familiar environments.Trouble recognizing objects or faces in later stages. What is the typical clinical presentation of Alzheimer’s? Early: Memory loss, word-finding difficulties.Middle: Disorientation, behavioral changes.Late: Severe cognitive decline, dependency for daily living. How does Alzheimer’s differ from vascular dementia? Alzheimer’s: Gradual cognitive decline, steady progression.Vascular dementia: Stepwise progression, sudden onset after strokes. How does Alzheimer’s affect language and communication? Early: Word-finding difficulties, slower speech.Middle: Trouble understanding complex sentences.Late: Severe language impairment, difficulty communicating. What is the role of caregiver support in managing Alzheimer’s? Education on disease progression and care strategies.Emotional support for caregivers.Respite care and support groups reduce caregiver burden. What cognitive domains are affected in Alzheimer’s? Memory (episodic and working memory).Language and word recall.Executive function and attention. What role do acetylcholinesterase inhibitors play in Alzheimer’s treatment? Improve acetylcholine levels by inhibiting breakdown.Temporarily improves cognition and memory.Includes Donepezil, Rivastigmine, Galantamine. What role does oxidative stress play in Alzheimer’s disease? Linked to the pathogenesis of amyloid and tau pathology.Increases damage to neurons, contributing to neurodegeneration. What pharmacological strategies are used for behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer’s? Antidepressants for mood disturbances.Antipsychotics (limited use) for agitation and aggression.Anxiolytics for anxiety-related symptoms. What are the key elements of managing advanced-stage Alzheimer’s? Full-time care for activities of daily living (ADLs).Palliative care for comfort and quality of life.Support for caregivers and end-of-life planning. How does Alzheimer’s affect social interaction and relationships? Progressive withdrawal from social activities.Difficulty recognizing familiar faces and loved ones.Changes in empathy and emotional responses. How is memory impairment presented in Alzheimer’s? Early: Episodic memory loss, recent events.Middle: Severe autobiographical memory loss.Late: Loss of long-term memories, even significant life events. What is the role of CSF biomarkers in diagnosing Alzheimer's? Reduced amyloid-beta.Increased phosphorylated tau and total tau.Indicates amyloid plaque and tau tangle formation. What imaging changes are seen in Alzheimer's? MRI: Medial temporal lobe atrophy.FDG-PET: Glucose hypometabolism in temporal and parietal lobes. What genetic mutations are linked to early-onset Alzheimer’s? APP mutation.PSEN1 and PSEN2 mutations.Associated with familial Alzheimer’s. What are the characteristics of tau tangles? Formed by hyperphosphorylated tau protein.Accumulate inside neurons (intracellular).Disrupt neuron function and cause cell death. What are the clinical features of early-stage Alzheimer’s? Memory loss, especially recent events.Difficulty finding words or recalling names.Disorientation in familiar places. How does tau spread in Alzheimer's disease? Starts in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus.Progresses to neocortical areas as the disease advances. What neuropsychological tests assess memory in Alzheimer’s? Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE).Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA).Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT). What support is needed to manage patients with dementia? Structured routines, safety measures at home.Respite care, support for caregivers.Pharmacological management (cholinesterase inhibitors). What non-pharmacological strategies help dementia patients? Cognitive stimulation therapy.Social interaction and activities.Environmental modifications to reduce confusion. What is thr Amyloid + Tau Cascade? Amyloid-beta accumulation: Misfolded amyloid-beta proteins form plaques in the brain, triggering neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.Tau hyperphosphorylation: In response to amyloid-beta, tau proteins become hyperphosphorylated, leading to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons.Neuronal dysfunction: The combined effect of amyloid plaques and tau tangles causes synaptic dysfunction, neuronal death, and progressive brain atrophy. What symptoms can show from damage to lateral and posterior areas of the brain? What symptoms can show from damage to anterior areas of the brain? What symptoms can show from damage to medial temporal areas of the brain? What is attention in the context of cognitive function? Attention is the cognitive process that selectively focuses on specific stimuli or information. Enhances sensory processing by prioritizing important stimuli and filtering out irrelevant information. Operates under both voluntary (top-down) and involuntary (bottom-up) control. What are the primary types of attention? Selective attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., listening to one person in a noisy room).Divided attention: Processing multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously.Sustained attention: Maintaining focus over a prolonged period (vigilance).Alternating attention: Switching focus between tasks or stimuli. What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in attention? The prefrontal cortex (PFC), especially the dorsolateral PFC, is responsible for executive control over attention.It helps in voluntary focus (top-down control), enabling goal-directed behavior.The PFC integrates sensory inputs and helps prioritize relevant stimuli for processing. How does the parietal lobe contribute to attention? The parietal lobe, particularly the posterior parietal cortex (PPC), is critical for spatial attention.Directs attention to specific locations in space and enhances the processing of stimuli in those areas.Damage to the parietal lobe can result in hemispatial neglect, where individuals fail to attend to one side of their environment. What is the role of the reticular activating system (RAS) in attention? The reticular activating system (RAS), located in the brainstem, regulates arousal and alertness, essential for attention.Prepares the brain to respond to stimuli by maintaining a state of wakefulness and alertness.The RAS is crucial for transitioning between sleep, wakefulness, and focused attention. What are the neural networks involved in attention? Dorsal attention network (DAN): Engages the superior parietal lobule and frontal eye fields for goal-directed attention.Ventral attention network (VAN): Includes the temporoparietal junction and ventral frontal cortex, responsible for detecting novel stimuli and reorienting attention.These networks coordinate to maintain and shift attention based on internal goals and external stimuli. What is Treisman's Attenuation Theory? Treisman's Attenuation Theory suggests that unattended information is not entirely blocked but is attenuated (weakened).Information passes through a filter that reduces its strength rather than completely blocking it.Attenuated stimuli can still be processed if they are relevant or important (e.g., hearing your name in a background conversation). How does attention modulate sensory processing in the brain? Attention enhances the neural representation of attended stimuli in sensory cortices (e.g., visual, auditory).Increases the signal-to-noise ratio, allowing precise processing of important stimuli and suppression of irrelevant noise.This modulation occurs at both early and late stages of sensory processing. What is the relationship between attention and working memory? Attention is essential for selecting and maintaining information in working memory.Top-down attention helps prioritize relevant information for short-term storage and manipulation.Attention and working memory work together to support goal-directed behavior and decision-making. How does attentional control break down in conditions like ADHD? ADHD is characterized by impaired executive control of attention, resulting in difficulty sustaining focus.Dysfunction in dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways, particularly involving the prefrontal cortex, contributes to attentional deficits.Stimulant medications (e.g., methylphenidate) increase dopamine and norepinephrine levels to improve attentional control. What are the important regions of the Wernicke Geschwind model a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-1 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-2 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-3 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-4 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-5 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-6 a8ad51ba506f4e6aa8ba82d3832b98a5-ao-7 What is a neuropsychological assessment? A method of assessing brain function using standardized cognitive tests. Used to diagnose cognitive impairments (e.g., dementia) and track brain function over time. Involves tests for attention, memory, language, executive function, and visuospatial skills. Why is neuropsychological assessment important in clinical practice? Helps in the early diagnosis of cognitive disorders (e.g., dementia). Guides treatment planning and interventions. Provides insight into which cognitive domains are affected and the severity of dysfunction. What is the ACE-III (Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination)? Comprehensive cognitive assessment used to evaluate multiple cognitive domains, including attention, memory, language, and visuospatial ability. Scored out of 100 points. Commonly used in diagnosing dementia and tracking cognitive decline. What cognitive domains are assessed by ACE-III? Attention and orientation.Memory (e.g., recalling words).Language (e.g., word-finding ability).Visuospatial function (e.g., copying drawings).Fluency and executive function. What is the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and its use in neuropsychological assessment? Brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Scored out of 30 points. Assesses cognitive domains like short-term memory, attention, language, visuospatial skills, and executive function. What is the 6-CIT (6-item Cognitive Impairment Test) and its purpose? Quick screening tool for dementia recommended by NICE guidelines. Consists of six tasks that test orientation, memory recall, and attention. Used for initial assessment and deciding on referrals to memory clinics. How is the ACE-III linked to diagnosing cognitive dysfunctions? Provides detailed insight into which cognitive domains are affected. Useful for diagnosing different types of dementia (e.g., Alzheimer's, frontotemporal dementia). The comprehensive nature allows it to track cognitive changes over time. What are the advantages of using MoCA in clinical settings? Shorter and easier to administer than ACE-III, making it ideal for initial screening. Sensitive to mild cognitive impairment (MCI), which may not be detected by other tests. Particularly useful in busy ward or community settings. How does the 6-CIT differ from ACE-III and MoCA in dementia screening? Simpler and faster to administer, ideal for initial dementia screening. Focuses on basic cognitive tasks such as orientation and recall. Less comprehensive than ACE-III but effective in detecting early signs of dementia. What is the significance of the cut-off scores in neuropsychological assessments like MoCA and ACE-III? MoCA: Score below 26 may indicate mild cognitive impairment.ACE-III: Score below 82 indicates possible cognitive impairment, and below 88 raises suspicion for dementia.Cut-off scores help guide clinical decisions for further testing or referral. What is the role of neuropsychological assessments in differentiating types of dementia? ACE-III can distinguish between Alzheimer’s disease (memory loss, language deficits) and frontotemporal dementia (executive dysfunction, personality changes).Neuropsychological profiles vary between dementia types, aiding diagnosis. How are neuropsychological tests used in monitoring disease progression in dementia? Tests like ACE-III and MoCA can be used over time to track cognitive decline. Changes in test scores help assess disease progression and treatment efficacy. How is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) used in cognitive screening? Widely used for basic cognitive screening, especially in dementia. Scored out of 30; commonly used cut-off is