SCTS-1013-Module-WEEK-3-4.pdf

UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS Tuguegarao City SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS, and SCIENCES First Semester A.Y. 2023-2024 CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE SCTS 1013 – Science, Technology and Society Prepared by: NICKSON B. CAMMAYO MARVIN B. BACCAY, MST MARLY I. IQUIN, Ph.D. Course Instructor Revised by: KARL OLIVER C. RICARDO Course Instructor Reviewed by: MIRELLE JEAN A. CARONAN, MST PE, ARTS, and SCTS Head Recommended by: HERBERT S. CORPUZ, Ed.D Academic Dean Approved by: EMMANUEL JAMES P. PATTAGUAN, Ph.D. Vice President for Academics SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 1 UNIVERSITY PRAYER O God, wellspring of goodness and blessings, we give you thanks and praise as one Louisian community. The graces You incessantly grant upon us and Your divine providence have sustained our beloved University throughout the years of mission and excellence. Having been founded by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, we pray that You keep us committed and dedicated to our mission and identity to serve the Church and the society as we become living witnesses to the Gospel values proclaimed by Jesus. For if we are steadfast in our good and beautiful mission, our works will bring success not only to ourselves but also to those whom we are bound to love and serve. Inspired by St. Louis our Patron Saint, who was filled with a noble spirit that stirred him to love You above all things , may we also live believing that we are born for a greater purpose and mission as we dwell in Your presence all the days of our life. Grant all these supplications through the intercession of Mother Mary and through Christ our Lord. Amen. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 2 CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE SCTS 1013: Science, Technology and Society AY 2023-2024 LESSON 3: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY Topic: A. Intellectual Revolutions and Society and B. Cradles of Science Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society across time; 2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of society about dominant scientific thought; and 3. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment. Date Topics Activities or Tasks September 1 Intellectual Revolutions and Society Read Lessons Copernican Revolution Complete Learning Task Sheet September 1 Darwinian Revolution Complete Evaluation Sheet (Modified Freudian Revolution True/False and Essay) September 6 Cradles of Science Read Lessons September 6 Developments of Science in Complete the Learning Task Sheet Mesoamerica Complete Evaluation Sheet (Multiple Development of Science in Asia Choice Question) September 6 Development of Science in Africa Assignment September 12 Turning over of learning task and acquisition of new module LEARNING CONTENT Introduction: In the study of history of science and technology, intellectual revolutions across time is an important area to understand. Since science is contained from time to time changes, we need to know the highlights that led science and technology a better society of today. In this lesson, we are also going to appreciate various contributions and discoveries that had evolved to the time we live nowadays. Some beliefs, theories and cultures have been retained in the entire world but only few is existing. For us to better understand, let us go back in time and have the best picture on how it was before, linking to our society where we are living. Aside from that, we will also be able to relate ourselves in the development that science and technology took years to be known. Therefore, I expect you to become not just informed students, but to be transformed students ready to seek knowledge and to do more with the knowledge that you have! That maybe more challenging, especially with this pandemic we are experiencing, but with the right motivation, we can still attain this goal. Let’s go! SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 3 Lesson Proper: Intellectual Revolutions in Society Let’s remember! I know you have encountered them in your history classes before so let’s review on their great contributions in science. 1.) Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer known as the father of modern astronomy. He was the first modern European scientist to propose that Earth and other planets revolve around the sun, or the Heliocentric Theory of the universe. Prior to the publication of his major astronomical work, “Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs,” in 1543, European astronomers argued that Earth lay at the center of the universe, the view also held by most ancient philosophers and biblical writers. In addition to correctly postulating the order of the known planets, including Earth, from the sun, and estimating their orbital periods relatively accurately, Copernicus argued that Earth turned daily on its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis accounted for the changing seasons. (https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/nicolaus-copernicus) 2.) Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known of his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. (www.localhistories.org/darwin.html) 3.) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 4 Since we already have a brief background of our three great contributors, can you imagine a world without science as an avenue for intellect? Do you think we can still live the society even without these revolutionary intellectuals? Perhaps no, because without them science will not bring us this far, into our own perspectives. Therefore, for this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused with the Greeks pre-Socratic speculations about the behavior of the universe. In science and technology, intellectual revolutions refer to the series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and the progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in history. Although there are many intellectual revolutions, this lesson focuses on three of the most important ones that altered the way humans view science and its impacts on society: the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened understanding of how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long-held views about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance on controversy. A. COPERNICAN REVOLUTION Refers to the 16th century paradigm shift named after the Polish mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. He formulated the HELIOCENTRIC MODEL of the universe. “The center of the solar system was not Earth but the Sun” -Copernicus This image is the heliocentric model. The sun being the center of the solar system. Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in a 40-page outline entitled Commentariolus. He formalized his model in the publication of his treatise, De Revolutioibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolution of Celestial Spheres). In his model, Copernicus repositioned the Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its own axis. CONFLICT on HELIOCENTRIC MODEL: The idea that the Sun is at the center of the universe was in conflict with GEOCENTRISM (Ptolemy’s theory), as Earth being the center of the Solar System. What happened to the heliocentric model? SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 5 One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolas Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece before Copernicus came on the scene. This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers- he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas so it was just a thought experiment. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome, Muller’s book which contains observations of heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy. Copernicus’ idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’ model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: 1. The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus closer to the Sun. 2. The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere. LEARNING TASK In not more than 5 sentences, share your insights on this question. A. In these modern times, what are other scientific evidences that support the heliocentric model of Nicolaus Copernicus? B. DARWINIAN REVOLUTION SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 6 The concept of evolution is depicted in the previous pictures. Charles Darwin’s famous Natural Selection is one of the limelight of science. It tells us that organisms including humans, inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favor survival and reproduction. I’m sure that this theory had been discussed repeatedly in your history and science subjects before and this is not new to you. Come to think of it, do we really come from monkeys? Up to now there are still no strong evidences that will support that belief but I know some of you are really confused. If that’s the case, then Darwin’s theory did not fail to prove the way how we see science. We are then products of the great influence of what we so call Darwinian revolution. What is Darwinian Revolution? The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin is credited for stirring another important intellectual revolution in the mid-19th century. His treatise on the science of evolution, On the Origin of Species, was published in 1859 and began a revolution that brought humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery. This benefitted from earlier intellectual revolutions especially those in the 16th and 17th centuries, such that it was guided by confidence in human reason’s ability to explain phenomena in the universe. This theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance and considered to be controversial. Critics accused the theory of being either short in accounting for the broad and complex evolutionary process or dismissive of the idea that the functional design of organisms was a manifestation of an omniscient God. What happened to the Darwinian theory? Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his theory. Darwin’s observational skills as scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin’s theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view. His accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unconventional way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. LEARNING TASK In not more than 4 sentences, share your insights on this question. B. Since the 1800s, Charles Darwin’s idea of “survival of the fittest” was applied to political, social, and cultural realm, creating the ideology “Social Darwinism”. What can be the positive and negative implications of this ideology to modern times? 1. Economy 2. Agriculture 3. Political SCTS Science 1013 - Science, 4. Religion and Society | 7 Technology C. FREUDIAN REVOLUTION Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freund, is credited for stirring a 20th- century intellectual revolution named after him, the Freudian Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in Psychology is at the center of this revolution. What is Psychoanalysis? - A scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s personality, spring from free associations, dreams and fantasies of the individual. - Psychoanalysis is part of a larger movement known as depth psychology, which argues that the most important aspects of personality lie below the level of conscious introspection, and are not visible to those who confine their observations to superficial features of social behavior. All depth psychologies make use of the iceberg metaphor: just as only one-ninth of an iceberg is visible above the surface of the ocean, so only a small portion of personality is apparent in what people do, and think, in the ordinary course of everyday living. People are not aware of, or at least cannot articulate, the reasons for their own behavior. For this reason, overt behavior of the type assessed by trait psychologists is of little interest -- the more appropriate focus is on what lies below. (https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu) Chart retrieved from: (https://www.goconqr.com) SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 8 This flowchart summarizes the theory of Psychoanalysis. It has three psychoanalytic concepts which include psychosexual development, libido and ego. ✓ Freud suggested that humans are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals. ✓ Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being unscientific as a theory. Particularly, the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (Example: Sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite sex and exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to be supported by empirical data. They call then Psychoanalysis as an ideological instance than a scientific one. What happened to Freud’s theory? Amidst controversy, Freud’s psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century. Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud’s work on psychoanalysis. LEARNING TASK In not more than 4 sentences, share your insights on this question. C. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or questions on Freud’s ideas? CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Since time immemorial, inventions in science and technology have contributed greatly to improve our way of living. Can you imagine us today without these inventions? The world now will be miserable if these were not invented. In order for us to better understand this, let us study three developments of science in Mesoamerica, Asia, and Africa. At this point, let’s time travel and take a look in the progress of our society with the help of our history. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA Where is Mesoamerica? - The term Mesoamerica is derived from the Greek and means "Middle America." It refers to a geographical and cultural area which extends from central Mexico down through Central America, including the territory which is now made up of the countries of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. It is therefore seen as partly in North America, and encompassing a large part of Central America SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 9 A. Maya Civilization It is one of the famous civilizations in Mesoamerica that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy (Moon, planets, Milky Way, Sun, and astronomical phenomena by the Pre-Columbian Maya Civilization of Mesoamerica) Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. They are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations. Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities. HYDRAULICS SYSTEM MICA Mayans also built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 10 Famous of using a writing system Mayan hieroglyphic. Mayans made use of a very well-developed and advanced written language. Since the language comprised of symbols and images, resembling the language of ancient Egypt, the Spanish conquistadors termed it hieroglyphics. The individual units in the language, or its alphabets, were called glyphs. The use of Mayan hieroglyphics was limited to the Mayan priestly class. The priests used the language to pen down books on a wide range of subjects, including books related to astronomy, religion, mythology and mathematics. Mayan hieroglyphics were also inscribed on monumental structures as part of stelas or carvings. Skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20 Developed the concept of zero and positive value even before the Romans did. B. Inca Civilization The Inca first appeared in the Andes region during the 12th century A.D. and gradually built a massive kingdom through the military strength of their emperors. Known as Tawantinsuyu, the Inca state spanned the distance of northern Ecuador to central Chile and consisted of 12 million inhabitants from more than 100 different ethnic groups at its peak. Well-devised agricultural and roadway systems, along with a centralized religion and language, helped maintain a cohesive state. Despite their power, the Inca were quickly overwhelmed by the diseases and superior weaponry of Spanish invaders, the last bastion of their immense empire overtaken in 1572. The Inca first appeared in what is today southeastern Peru during the 12th century A.D. According to some version s of their origin myths, they were created by the sun god, Inti, who sent his son Manco Capac to Earth through the middle of three caves in the village of Paccari Tampu. After killing his brothers, Manco Capac led his sisters and their followers through the wilderness before settling in the fertile valley near Cusco circa 1200. (https://www.history.com/topics/south-america/inca) The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life: 1. Roads paved with stones 2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters 3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of lands 4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season 5. The first suspension bridge 6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret 7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specialties prized artistic achievements. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 11 STONE BUILDINGS INCA’S CALENDAR INCA’S IRRIGATION SYSTEM INCA’S FIRST SUSPENSION BRIDGE C. Aztec Civilization Aztec, self-name Culhua-Mexica, Nahuatl-speaking people who in the 15th and early 16th centuries ruled a large empire in what is now central and southern Mexico. The Aztecs are so called from Aztlán (“White Land”), an allusion to their origins, probably in northern Mexico. They were also called the Tenochca, from an eponymous ancestor, Tenoch, and the Mexica, probably from Metzliapán (“Moon Lake”), the mystical name for Lake Texcoco. From Tenochca was derived the name of their great city, Tenochtitlán, and from Mexica came the name for the city that superseded the Aztecs capital and for the surrounding valley, which was applied later to the whole Mexican nation. The Aztecs referred to themselves as Culhua- Mexica, to link themselves with Colhuacán, the center of the most-civilized people of the Valley of Mexico.See alsopre- Columbian civilizations: Aztec culture to the time of theSpanish conquest. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 12 (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aztec) Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following: 1. Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children is mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education. 2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. in the Mayan culture they used it as a currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods. 3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery. 4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals. 5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals and planting season. 6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems. A. CHINAMPA B. AZTEC CALENDAR C. AZTEC’S CANOE SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 13 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East Civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their time. A. India It is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives. They are known of manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman empire. Famous also of medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts like Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in ancient India. Notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Siddhanta Shiromani – textbook of ancient India which covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon. Mohenjodaro ruler was designed by Indians in the Indus Valley Civilization to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 14 Aryabhatiya book made by Aryabhata (476-550) introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit along with Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered as the founder of mathematical analysis. Ancient India was an early leader in metallurgy, as evidenced by the wrought iron Pillar of Delhi. Astrolabe- The Astrolabe is an ancient instrument that measures the positions of stars and the solar system. B. China One of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music among others. Its civilization greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road. Known for traditional medicines. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. Example is the practice of acupuncture. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 15 Invented compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools. Invented also, tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller. Developed design of different models of bridges, invented first seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility. Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world. China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science. China’s Early Rockets China’s Ancient Compass China’s Ancient Plow China’s Ancient Gunpowder SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 16 C. Middle East Countries The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islams in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics in his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Jabir ibn Hayyan a Muslim chemist who was considered as the Father of Chemistry. Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine were used as a standard medicinal text in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology. There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of science, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 17 Ibn al-Haytham Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi Jabir ibn Hayyan (Father of Optics) (Father of Chemistry) DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long before the European colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to the other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers too. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 18 The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. Egypt was known to be the center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology and applied important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science. Astronomy was also famous in the African Region. For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar or a combination of three. Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures. Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. AFRICA’S ALCHEMY AFRICA’S METALLURGY PRODUCT *** END of the Lesson Proper*** REFERENCES Textbooks Aldea, K, Caronan H.P, and Candido, M.B. (2018). Science, Technology and Society (OBE Ready). Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Book Atbp. Publishing Corp. Serafica, J.P., Pawilen, G., Caslib Jr., B.N., and Alata, E.J. (2018). Science, Technology and Society. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc. (RBSI) Quinto, E.J. and Nieva, A. (2019). Science, Technology and Society. Quezon City, Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc. SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 19 Online References Nicolaus Copernicus Early Life. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/nicolaus-copernicus Lambert, T. A Brief Biography of Charles Darwin. Retrieved from www.localhistories.org/darwin.html Psychoanalysis Theory of Freud. Retrieved from https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu Psychoanalysis Flowchart Diagram. Retrieved from https://www.goconqr.com Inca History. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/south-america/inca The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. Aztec History. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aztec Learning Materials Worksheets (teacher-made) SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 20 SCTS 1013 - Science, Technology and Society | 21

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