Science reviewer 2.pdf

25/09/2024 Review Outline A. Nature of Physical Science...

25/09/2024 Review Outline A. Nature of Physical Science B. Earth and Space Science LET REVIEW OF BASIC 1. The Universe PHYSICAL SCIENCE 2. Solar System © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh 3. Atmosphere Physical Sciences Department 4. Hydrosphere De La Salle University-Dasmariñas 5. Lithosphere September 21, 2024 1 2 Review Outline Review Outline C. Chemistry D. Physics 1. Atomic Structure 1. Forces 2. Periodic Table 2. Motion 3. Electronic Structure 3. Energy 4. Chemical Bonding 4. Waves and Optics 5. Gases 5. Thermodynamics 6. Solutions 6. Electromagnetism 7. Acids and Bases 3 4 A. NATURE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE a. Physics - deals with the study of matter and energy and their interactions. i. Mechanics - study of motion 1. Science - a systematic body of knowledge that seeks to give ii. Thermodynamics - study of heat and related forms of energy plausible explanations and predictions about our universe or iii. Optics - study of properties and interaction of light iv. Electromagnetism - study of the relationship between electrical and magnetic natural world. forces. 2. Natural Sciences - seek to study our physical world mainly b. Chemistry - the study of the structure, composition, properties and changes that through rigid experimentation where controlled variables are set-up to matter undergoes. i. Organic Chemistry - study of carbon-based compounds determine measurable results. The natural sciences can be further ii. Inorganic Chemistry - study of the remaining subset of elements and subdivided into Physical Science and Life Science. compounds other than organic ones iii. Biochemistry - study of the chemistry of living organisms 3. Physical Science - the study of the non-living components of our iv. Analytical Chemistry - study of obtaining, processing, and communicating natural world which is further subdivided into Physics, Chemistry, information about the composition and structure of matter v. Physical Chemistry - study of how matter behaves on atomic and molecular Earth Science, and Space Science. level and the process by which chemical reactions occur. 5 6 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 1  25/09/2024 c. Earth Science - deals with the study of the physical constitution of the The Scientific Method Earth. i. Geology - study of the rock sphere or lithosphere of the Earth ii. Hydrology - study of the water sphere or hydrosphere of the Earth iii. Meteorology - study of the Earth’s atmosphere d. Space Science or Astronomy - study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, galaxies, and comets) in the outer space of the Earth or the universe. 4. Scientific Method - the gold standard used for investigating the natural world to produce plausible explanations to observed natural phenomena. It is an empirical method which involves careful observation and recording of patterns and behavior during experimentation and making generalization from such process. 7 8 a. Observation - the process of recognizing an occurrence in e. Experiment - a series of systematic actions that is performed to test a hypothesis.. nature using one’s physical senses. Such observation may An independent variable is a factor that you can control in the experiment while a arise from one’s experience, thoughts, and/or readings. dependent variable is a factor that changes according to the variable that you have manipulated. Simply put, the independent variable is the “cause” while the dependent variable is the “effect”. b. Asking the right questions - crucial to any scientific inquiry and the desire to know the answer to those questions is the f. Data analysis - the systematic and sound processing of all the obtained data to driver for carrying out a scientific investigation. determine the over-all results of the experiment. This is another tedious process because it requires detailed and careful processing of the data through tabular, c. Literature search - seeks the most relevant and updated graphical, mathematical, statistical, and/or computational analysis. related published materials that have significant bearing to the phenomenon of interest. g. Conclusion - the rational confirmation or rejection of the postulated hypothesis based on the obtained results. Further observations and questions typically arise d. Hypothesis - said to be an “educated guess” or a “tentative from the conclusion and the process of scientific inquiry is repeated using the iterative steps of the scientific method. assumption” that is formulated to predict the outcome of an experiment. 9 10 5. Measurement - the process of determining an unknown value by comparing it to h. Theory - defined as a generalized, coherent, and a standard unit. systematic idea or set of ideas that explains an observed natural phenomenon. A theory though is not an absolute a. Metric System - the current international system of measurement (SI or truth, as it is testable and falsifiable just like a hypothesis. Système international d'unités). b. English System – based on the British or Imperial system of measurement i. Scientific Law - is a generalized rule that describes a certain phenomenon in our natural world that occurs in the c. Fundamental quantities - are 7 physical quantities in their simplest form. same way repeatedly. It merely describes and implies a (LeMaTi TEcLiAs) cause-and-effect relationship between the observed phenomenon but do not explain the reasons behind it unlike a scientific theory. Examples of scientific law are the Law of Gravity and Law of Inertia by Isaac Newton. 11 12 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 2  25/09/2024 d. Derived quantities - taken from 2 or more fundamental measurements. e. Scalar - a physical quantity with magnitude but has no direction. Examples are mass, length, density, volume, distance, speed, energy, temperature, and time. f. Vector- a physical quantity with both magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, and current. A vector can be represented by an arrow with 13 14 PRACTICE QUESTIONS PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. The study of atoms and atomic structure would fall under what specific 1. The study of atoms and atomic structure would fall under what specific field of Science? field of Science? A. Biology B. Chemistry C. Physics D. Earth Science A. Biology B. Chemistry C. Physics D. Earth Science 2. In the scientific method, what process involves the use of your physical 2. In the scientific method, what process involves the use of your physical senses to describe or recognize a process in nature? senses to describe or recognize a process in nature? A. Observation C. Hypothesis formulation A. Observation C. Hypothesis formulation B. Experimentation D. Conclusion B. Experimentation D. Conclusion 3. All of the following are fundamental quantities, except? 3. All of the following are fundamental quantities, except? A. Time B. Length C. Amount of substance D. Volume A. Time B. Length C. Amount of substance D. Volume 15 16 B. EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE c. String Theory – proposes that subatomic particle do not exist, instead, tiny piece of vibrating string that are too small to be detected. 1. Universe – all of space and all matter and energy on it, which Their vibrations produce effects that we interpret as atoms, electrons includes galaxies, stars, planets and other heavenly bodies. and quarks. a. Big Bang Theory – the universe started with a huge explosion d. Dark energy – about 69.4% of the universe is made up of this around 13.7 billion years ago, such cataclysm created space, unknown energy which affects the universe the most. time, and all matter and energy that exist in the universe, which has been expanding ever since. e. Dark matter – about 30.1% of the universe is made up of this invisible matter whose presence is discerned only from its b. Inflation Theory – proposes a period of exponential expansion of gravitational attraction. the universe during its first few moments. It also sought to explain the seeming flat geometry of the universe and the non-existence of f. Ordinary matter – about 0.5% of the universe is made up of this magnetic monopoles. visible matter. 17 18 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 3  25/09/2024 g. Galaxy – a system of stellar bodies, remnants, gases, dust, and dark matter that are held together by gravity. 2. Solar system – the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and i. Milky Way – the spiral galaxy to which our solar system belongs. the celestial objects that orbit it. ii. Andromeda – the spiral galaxy which is nearest the Milky Way. a. Sun – a 4.5-billion-year-old yellow dwarf star at the center of our iii. Hubble’s Law – the observation that galaxies are moving away solar system from the Earth at speeds proportional to their distance. b. Terrestrial planets – planets with compact, rocky surface. (MVEM) 1. Mercury – the closest planet to the sun and the smallest. d. Stars – luminous spheroid celestial bodies that are made up of 2. Venus – the 2nd planet form the sun and the hottest due to plasma that are bound by its own gravity. runaway greenhouse effect. i. The color od stars can be red (coolest), orange, yellow, green, 3. Earth – the only inhabited planet in our solar system. It is also white, and blue (hottest). the densest and has its own moon. ii. Thermonuclear fusion – source of the energy of stars, where two 4. Mars – the red planet due to finely-grained iron oxide dust in lighter atoms (typically hydrogen) fuse to form a heavier atom the soil. (typically helium). 19 20 c. Jovian planets – gaseous giant planets at the outer part of our solar system. (JSUN) 5. Jupiter – the largest planet of the solar system. 6. Saturn – the 2nd largest planet of the solar system known for its dazzling ring system. runaway greenhouse effect. 7. Uranus – the 3rd largest planet of the solar system and is a gaseous ice giant made up of ammonia, methane, and water. 8. Neptune – farthest planet from the Sun. d. Asteroid belt – found between Mars and Jupiter where million of rocky planetary remnants are orbiting around the sun. e. Comets – cosmic ball of ice, dust, and rock that when they orbit closer to the Sun, spew gases and dust into a glowing head. f. Meteoroids – small rocky fragments in space. They are called meteors when they enter our atmosphere and meteorites when they hit the ground. 21 22 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. Jovian planets can be best described as what? A. Large gaseous planets C. Small gaseous planets B. Small rocky planets D. Large rocky planets 2. The energy from the sun and stars are driven by which reaction? A. Thermonuclear fission C. Thermonuclear oxidation B. Thermonuclear reduction D. Thermonuclear fusion 3. What do you call a piece of space rock that reaches the Earth’s surface? A. Asteroid C. Meteorite B. Meteor D. Comet Image source: https://qa-animals.info/meteor-v-asteroid 23 24 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 4  25/09/2024 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 3. Atmosphere – the layer of gases surrounding our planet. 1. Jovian planets can be best described as what? A. Large gaseous planets C. Small gaseous planets a. Functions of the Atmosphere B. Small rocky planets D. Large rocky planets 1. Supports life – oxygen gas is essential for most living things while 2. The energy from the sun and stars are driven by which reaction? CO2 is essential for photosynthesis. A. Thermonuclear fission C. Thermonuclear oxidation 2. Absorbs solar radiation – ensure the “right temperature” for viable B. Thermonuclear reduction D. Thermonuclear fusion living. 3. Burns up meteors – the friction with the atmosphere burns most 3. What do you call a piece of space rock that reaches the Earth’s surface? A. Asteroid C. Meteorite meteors and prevent them from damaging our planet’s surface. B. Meteor D. Comet 4. Regulates climate – influence the long-term weather conditions. 25 26 b. Composition of the Atmosphere c. Layers of the Atmosphere (TroSMITE) 1. Nitrogen (78%) – most abundant gas, 1. Troposphere – extend from the Earth’s surface until about 15 km above. Most dense and where weather phenomena occurs. making the atmosphere inert. Used for 2. Stratosphere – extends just above the troposphere up to 50 km high. the manufacture of fertilizers and other Contains the ozone layer that absorbs harmful UV rays from the Sun. important chemicals 3. Mesosphere – extends just above the stratosphere up to 85 km high. 2. Oxygen (21%) – plays a crucial role in Burn up most of the meteors. cellular respiration. 4. Ionosphere – stretches across the atmosphere from 48 to 965 km with 3. Water vapor (2%) – forms clouds, fogs, abundant electrons and ions. Makes radio communication possible. and precipitation. Absorbs heat in the 5. Thermosphere – extends just above the mesosphere up to 600 km lower atmosphere. high. Aurora display occurs here, and it is where satellites orbit the 4. Carbon dioxide (> 1%) – essential for planet. photosynthesis and greenhouse effect. 6. Exosphere – extends just above the thermosphere up to 10.000 km high which is the upper limit of the atmosphere. 27 28 d. Seasons 1. The Earth is tilted at its axis by 23.50 which results to uneven distribution of sunlight across the planet. 2. Equinox – happens in March 21 (vernal equinox) and September 23 (autumn equinox) when the Sun is exactly above the equator, which makes day and night of equal length. 3. Solstice – happens in June 21 or 22 (summer solstice) and December 21 or 22 (winter solstice) when the Sun’s path in the sky is farthest north or south from the Equator. Results to longest day or night. 4. Seasons – period of the year in mid-latitudes that is distinguished by special climatic conditions known as spring, summer, autumn (fall), and winter. 29 30 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 5  25/09/2024 e. Weather - the condition of the atmosphere, resulting to day-to-day variation in temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions. 1. Weather occurs mainly because of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and moisture variations. 2. Meteorology – the study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena that affects weather. 3. Temperature – measure of how hot or cold the atmosphere is. Measured using a thermometer. 4. Atmospheric pressure – the weight exerted by the atmosphere which affects weather systems such as high-pressure or low- pressure areas. Measured using a barometer. 5. Humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air which is expressed as relative humidity, the percentage of maximum amount of water air can hold at a given temperature. Measured using a psychrometer. Image source: Pearson Education. 31 32 6. Wind – the movement of air because of temperature and pressure differences. 7. Precipitation – liquid or solid water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back into the Earth’s surface such as rain, snow, hail, and sleet. 8. Clouds – aerosol made up of water droplets, frozen crystals, and other suspended particles in the atmosphere a. Cirrus – wispy, feathery clouds high in the atmosphere. Usually the initial sign for upcoming warm front. b. Nimbus – dark, grey, featureless clouds which produces persistent rain. c. Stratus – uniform and flat low-level clouds, usually producing gray layer that produces light precipitation. d. Cumulus – generally detached fluffy and cotton-like clouds. Generally, produces no rain but can grow into thunderstorm clouds called cumulonimbus. 33 34 f. Air pollution - material added to the atmosphere that can affect climate 5. Ozone (O3) – secondary pollutant produced from nitrogen dioxide. and harm organisms, including humans, which may come from natural Reactive gas that contributes to smog. sources or man-made (anthropogenic) sources. 6. Particulate matter (PM) – small particles such as soot, dust, fibers, 1. Carbon monoxide (CO) – odorless and colorless toxic gas which is sulfates, nitrates and others that are suspended in the air. May penetrate produced from incomplete combustion such as vehicle exhaust. the lungs and causes respiratory diseases. 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) – naturally produced from respiration and other 7. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – volatile chemicals such as natural sources. However, the burning of fossil fuels produces tons of hydrocarbons which can exacerbate respiratory diseases. CO2 which results to runaway greenhouse effect causing global 8. Lead (Pb) – heavy metal that is released when burning leaded gasoline warming and climate change. and other point sources. Highly toxic substances that harm the nervous, 3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) – colorless gas from burning of sulfur- circulatory, and other body systems. contaminated fuels like coals and volcanic emission. Reacts with water vapor to form acid precipitation. 4. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) – reddish noxious gas from the burning fossil fuels. Forms smog and acid precipitation. 35 36 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 6  25/09/2024 PRACTICE QUESTIONS PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. All of the following are functions of the Earth’s atmosphere, except? 1. All of the following are functions of the Earth’s atmosphere, except? A. Life support C. Source of minerals A. Life support C. Source of minerals B. Protection from solar radiation D. Burning up of meteors B. Protection from solar radiation D. Burning up of meteors 2. Ozone layer can be found in what part of our atmosphere? 2. Ozone layer can be found in what part of our atmosphere? A. Troposphere C. Mesosphere A. Troposphere C. Mesosphere B. Thermosphere D. Stratosphere B. Thermosphere D. Stratosphere 3. What type of dark cloud indicates an impending heavy rain? 3. What type of dark cloud indicates an impending heavy rain? A. Cirrus C. Stratus A. Cirrus C. Stratus B. Nimbus D. Cumulus B. Nimbus D. Cumulus 4. What air pollutant is largely responsible for anthropogenic global warming? 4. What air pollutant is largely responsible for anthropogenic global warming? A. Sulfur dioxide C. Carbon dioxide A. Sulfur dioxide C. Carbon dioxide B. Ozone D. Volatile organic compounds B. Ozone D. Volatile organic compounds 37 38 4. Hydrosphere – the discontinuous layer of water at or near the b. Hydrologic Cycle Earth’s atmosphere. 1. Evaporation – transformation from liquid water to water vapor. 2. Condensation – transformation from water vapor to liquid a. Properties of Water water. 1. Universal solvent – dissolves polar substances though H-bonds. 3. Transpiration – loss of water from plants. 2. Universal coolant – has a high specific heat capacity, absorbs 4. Precipitation – condensed water vapor in the atmosphere that solar radiation and its evaporation leads to cooling effect. fall to the surface such as rain, snow, hail, and sleet. 3. Floats when freezes – forms a network structure when frozen, 5. Run-off – water that accumulates and flows along the surface making it less dense than liquid water, has insulating effect. of the land. 4. Non-toxic – biocompatible liquid. 6. Percolation – the seepage of water through the ground. 7. Groundwater – the water beneath the ground that seeps into the spaces of porous sedimentary rocks called aquifers. 39 40 c. Distribution of Water 1. Seawater – 97% of the Earth’s water is saline water found on the oceans. 2. Freshwater – 3% of the Earth’s water that is without significant dissolved salts such as in rivers, lakes, groundwater, and ice caps. 3. Oceans – continuous body of seawater i.e. Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. 4. Seas – portion of the ocean that is partially surrounded by land. 5. Bays – a recessed coastal body of water that connects to a larger main water body. 6. Gulf – a large inlet of the ocean into the landmass Image source: https://arcticbiome-ejf.weebly.com/the-carbon-oxygen-nitrogen-and-water-cycles.html 41 42 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 7  25/09/2024 7. Glacier – persistent body of dense ice such as in polar regions and alpine mountains, almost 70% of freshwater. 8. Lake – a large body of water surrounded by land. 9. River – large, natural stream of flowing fresh water. 10. Marsh – a wetland ecosystem where the water covers the ground for a long period of time. 11. Swamp – a forested wetland. 12. Spring - a natural discharge point of subterranean water at the surface of the ground or directly into the bed of a stream, lake, or sea. 13. Pond – an inland body of standing water smaller than a lake which can be natural or man-made. Image source: https://e-education.psu.edu/earth103/node/701 43 44 c. Zones of the Ocean 1. Pelagic zone - refers to the open sea that is subdivided into: a. Neritic zone – region of shallow water adjoining the coastline b. Oceanic zone – deeper water that extends up to 600 feet c. Benthic zone – ocean bottom 2. Oceanic zone according to water depth a. Epipelagic/Euphotic zone - is the top layer where there is enough sunlight to support photosynthesis. b. Mesopelagic/Disphotic zone - is the zone where there is small amount of light. c. Bathypelagic/Aphotic- extends from 3281 feet down to ocean floor where it is dark. 45 46 PRACTICE QUESTIONS c. Zones of the Ocean 1. Pelagic zone - refers to the open sea that is subdivided into (NOB): 1. Most of freshwater resource is found in groundwater. What do you call the layer a. Neritic zone – region of shallow water adjoining the coastline of sedimentary rock where groundwater is found? b. Oceanic zone – deeper water that extends up to 600 feet A. Aquifer C. Sandstone c. Benthic zone – ocean bottom B. Spring D. Deep well 2. Oceanic zone according to water depth (EMB) 2. The biggest repository of the Earth’s freshwater can be found in ___? A. Groundwater C. Glacier a. Epipelagic/Euphotic zone - is the top layer where there is enough B. River D. Lake sunlight to support photosynthesis. b. Mesopelagic/Disphotic zone - is the zone where there is small 3. Coral reefs would be most likely found in what zone of the ocean? amount of light. A. Benthic zone C. Mesopelagic zone c. Bathypelagic/Aphotic- extends from 3281 feet down to ocean floor B. Neritic zone D. Aphotic zone where it is dark. 47 48 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 8  25/09/2024 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 5. Lithosphere – the solid, outer part of the Earth (rock sphere) a. Layers of the Earth (CMMa OIC) 1. Most of freshwater resource is found in groundwater. What do you call the layer of sedimentary rock where groundwater is found? 1. Crust – the thin outermost layer made up of dense rocks and A. Aquifer C. Sandstone subdivided into continental and oceanic crust. B. Spring D. Deep well 2. Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity) – the boundary between the crust and mantle. 2. The biggest repository of the Earth’s freshwater can be found in ___? A. Groundwater C. Glacier 3. Mantle – the thick layer of silicate rock between the crust and the B. River D. Lake outer core and makes up about 84% of our planet’s volume. Asthenosphere – upper mantle which is mechanically weak 3. Coral reefs would be most likely found in what zone of the ocean? (plastic) and ductile. A. Benthic zone C. Mesopelagic zone 4. Outer core – made up of molten iron and nickel and responsible B. Neritic zone D. Aphotic zone for the Earth’s magnetic field. 5. Inner core – innermost layer of the Earth that is made up of hot dense ball of iron with a radius of about 1,200 km. 49 50 b. Continental Drift Theory – proposed by Alfred Wegener which suggested that the Earth’s continents were drifting. The present continents are joined into a supercontinent called Pangea some 225 million years ago. c. Plate Tectonics Theory – the crust and upper mantle is made up of 7 large rocky plates which have been slowing moving since 3.4 billion years ago. 51 52 d. Types of Plate Tectonic Boundaries 1. Divergent plates – two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Earthquakes are common along these boundaries and magma rises to form new oceanic crust. 2. Convergent plates – two tectonic plates that come together. The impact of collision results to mountain or trench building. Often form a chain of volcanoes that are parallel to convergent plates such as the Pacific Ring of Fire where most of the active volcanoes are located. 3. Transform plates – two tectonic plates that are sliding past each other. Earthquakes a re common along these faults. Image source: https://earthhow.com/7-major-tectonic-plates/ 53 54 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 9  25/09/2024 e. Volcanoes – are vents or opening on the Earth’s surface where lava and other volcanic materials escapes. 1. Magma – molten or semi-molten rocks beneath the Earth’s surface. 2. Lava – magma that has been expelled to the Earth’s surface. 3. Pyroclastic flow – very hot and chaotic mixture of rock fragments, gas, and ash that travels rapidly from a volcanic vent. 4. Tephra– fragments of rock ejected into the air by an erupting volcano. 5. Types of volcano a. Cinder cone volcano – circular or oval cone made up of small fragments of lava from a single vent that have been blown up (ex. Taal Volcano) b. Composite volcano – steep-sided volcano composed of many layers of volcanic rocks. (ex. Mayon Volcano) c. Shield volcano – shaped like a bowl formed by eruption of low-viscoty lava. (ex. Mt. Kanlaon) d. Lava dome volcano – circular, mound-shaped protrusion from slow Image source: https://age-of-the-sage.org/tectonic_plates/boundaries_boundary_types.htm extrusion of viscous lava. (ex. Mt. St. Helens in the US). 55 56 f. Earthquake – rapid and sudden shaking of the ground due to the shifting of rocks underneath the Earth’s surface. 1. Seismology – the study of earthquake and seismic waves that move through and around the Earth. 2. Tectonic earthquake – produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries. 3. Non-tectonic earthquake – may be due to volcanic eruption, landslide, subsidence, or large-scale explosion. 4. Faults – are fractures between two blocks of rocks where movement may take place. a. Normal fault - vertical movement; the rock above the fault plane moves down relative to the rock below. b. Reverse fault - rock above the fault plane moves up relative to the rock below. c. Strike-slip fault – fault having horizontal movements. 57 58 5. Seismograph – the instrument used to measure and record details of earthquake such as force and duration. 6. Magnitude – the amount of energy released at the earthquake’s source. The Richter scale shows the relative logarithmic magnitude of an earthquake. 59 60 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 10  25/09/2024 10. Types of Seismic Waves 7. Intensity – relative measure of how a. Surface waves – travel along the outer layer of the earth. much the ground shake at a specific b. Body waves – travel through the earth’s interior. location. i. Primary wave (P-wave) – fastest and compressional ii. Secondary wave (S-wave) – shear and slower than P-wave. 8. Foreshock – a mild tremor preceding the violent shaking 11. Focus – where slippage along the fault zone results in an movement of an earthquake. earthquake. 9. Aftershocks – smaller earthquakes 12. Epicenter – spot on the surface of the Earth directly above the focus. that occur in the same general area following the larger event or “mainshock”. 61 62 Image sources : https://windows2universe.org/earth/geology/quake_1.html&edu=high Image source: https://math.upd.edu.ph/2019/04/earthquake-preparedness-guide 63 64 g. Rocks – aggregates of one or more mineral 1. Petrology – scientific study of rocks c. Metamorphic rocks – rocks that are transformed by heat and pressure. 2. Types of Rocks 1. Marble – metamorphized limestone a. Igneous rocks – formed when magma cools and crystallizes 2. Quartzite – metamorphized quartz-rich sandstone or chert 1. Granite – coarse-grained intrusive igneous rocks composed mostly of 3. Slate – metamorphized shale quartz 2. Basalt - coarse-grained extrusive igneous rocks that are rich in d. Rock cycle – describes the process through which the 3 main types of magnesium and iron. rocks transform from one type to another. 3. Obsidian – natural glassy rock formed by rapid cooling of silica-rich magma. e. Weathering – the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals by b. Sedimentary rocks – formed from compaction or cementation of rock various agents such as water, wind, thermal stress, and biological agents. fragments. 1. Limestone – composed mostly of calcium carbonate f. Erosion – the process by which earthen materials are worn away and 2. Sandstone – composed mostly of quartz sand transported by various agents such as wind or water. 3. Shale –fine-grained mix of clay, quartz, and calcite. 65 66 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 11  25/09/2024 h. Minerals – solids with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure. 1. Mineralogy – scientific study of minerals 2. The five most common minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, amphibole, and olivine. 3. Properties of Minerals a. Luster – refers to the way light is reflected from a mineral surface. Can be described as vitreous (glassy), pearly, silky, resinous and earthy (dull). b. Streak – refers to the color of powdered mineral. To find the streak, rub the mineral sample across a piece of unglazed porcelain or streak plate. c. Cleavage – tendency of mineral to break along planes of weak bonding. d. Fracture – minerals that do not exhibit cleavage are said to fracture when broken. e. Color – some minerals are always of the same color, i.e., azurite is always deep blue; malachite is green, cinnabar is red, sulfur is yellow. f. Crystal form – when the external features of a mineral reflects its orderly internal arrangement of atoms, the mineral is demonstrating crystal form. Image source: https://storyboardthat.com/lesson-plans/rocks-and-weathering/rock-cycle 67 68 g. Hardness – refers to the mineral’s resistance to being scractched i. Soil – refers to the mixture of weathered rock fragments, mineral grains, decaying organic matter (called humus) and moisture. It is the natural medium in which land plants grow, due to the rock and mineral matter, organic matter and dissolved water and air present in it. 1. Soil Texture – relative proportions of clay, silt and sand in a soil. Texture strongly influence the soil’s ability to retain and transmit water and air 2. Soil Profile – a vertical section through a soil showing its succession of horizons and the underlying parent material 3. Soil Horizon – a layer of soil that has identifiable characteristics produced by chemical weathering and other soil – forming processes. 4. Types of Soil a. Sandy soil – light, warm, dry, low in nutrients, quick drainage, poor water retention. b. Clay soil – feels very sticky when wet, good water retention, poor drainage. c. Loam soil – mixture of sand and silt with a very small amount of clay; best suited to support plant life due to its moisture characteristics and nutrient storage ability. d. Silt soil – slippery when wet, not grainy or rocky, quite fertile soil. 69 70 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. You are trekking around Tagaytay City which is overlooking Taal Volcano. What native rocks is likely present in the area? A. Sedimentary rocks C. Igneous rocks B. Metamorphic rocks D. Hard rocks 2. The layer of the Earth that is responsible for its magnetic field is the ___? A. Crust C. Inner core B. Outer core D. Mantle 3. What instrument is used for the detection and measurement of an earthquake? A. Seismograph C. Thermometer B. Seismometer D. Thermograph 4. Why is loam soil considered as the best soil for growing many crops? I. Balanced moisture retention II. Presence of abundant humus III. Quick drainage A. I and II B. II and III C. I and III D. I, II, and III 71 72 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 12  25/09/2024 PRACTICE QUESTIONS C. CHEMISTRY 1. You are trekking around Tagaytay City which is overlooking Taal Volcano. What native rocks is likely present in the area? 1. Atomic Structure - an atom is composed A. Sedimentary rocks C. Igneous rocks B. Metamorphic rocks D. Hard rocks of three types of subatomic particles namely proton, neutron, and electron. 2. The layer of the Earth that is responsible for its magnetic field is the ___? a. Nucleus – the small, central, and dense A. Crust C. Inner core B. Outer core D. Mantle region where protons and neutrons are found. 3. What instrument is used for the detection and measurement of an earthquake? b. Atomic orbital - the space around the A. Seismograph C. Thermometer B. Seismometer D. Thermograph nucleus where the electrons revolve around. 4. Why is loam soil considered as the best soil for growing many crops? c. Mass of atoms is expressed in atomic I. Balanced moisture retention II. Presence of abundant humus III. Quick drainage mass unit or amu (1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 A. I and II B. II and III C. I and III D. I, II, and III g). 73 74 e. Ions - charged particles that are formed upon losing or gaining electron(s). 1. Cation – an atom which gains net positive charge when it loses electron(s). 2. Anion – an atom which gains net negative charge when it gains electron(s). f. Isotopes - same elements but with different number of neutrons, hence different mass number. For example, the isotopes of hydrogen (11 H) are deuterium (21 H) and tritium (31 H). Usually, the isotope with the highest mass number is radioactive like tritium. d. The representation of an element is illustrated in the figure on the right. Since elements are electrically neutral, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. Image source: https://energy.gov/science/doe-explainsisotopes 75 76 PRACTICE QUESTIONS PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. The nucleus is at the center of the atom. What subatomic particles can be found in the 1. The nucleus is at the center of the atom. What subatomic particles can be found in the nucleus? nucleus? A. Electrons and protons C. Protons and neutrons A. Electrons and protons C. Protons and neutrons B. Electrons and neutrons D. Protons, neutrons, and electrons B. Electrons and neutrons D. Protons, neutrons, and electrons 2. Gold has an atomic number of 79 and mass number of 197. How many protons and 2. Gold has an atomic number of 79 and mass number of 197. How many protons and neutrons does it contain? neutrons does it contain? A. proton = 197, neutron = 79 C. proton = 79, neutron = 197 A. proton = 197, neutron = 79 C. proton = 79, neutron = 197 B. proton = 79, neutron = 118 D. proton = 118, neutron = 79 B. proton = 79, neutron = 118 D. proton = 118, neutron = 79 3. Oxygen forms an ion with a -2 charge, what does it means in terms of the number of 3. Oxygen forms an ion with a -2 charge, what does it mean in terms of the number of subatomic particles that was gained or lost? subatomic particles that was gained or lost? A. It gained 2 electrons C. It gained 2 protons A. It gained 2 electrons C. It gained 2 protons B. It lost 2 protons D. It lost 2 electrons B. It lost 2 protons D. It lost 2 electrons 77 78 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 13  25/09/2024 d. Group or Family – elements that belong to the same column which exhibit similar 2. PERIODIC TABLE properties. Group IA or Alkali metals – form base or alkali when they react with water a. Dmitri Mendeleev – arranged the elements according to increasing atomic Group IIA or Alkaline Earth Metals – also form base with water and occur in masses and noted the periodicity in their properties. He left “gaps” in his periodic minerals table then predicted that elements would be discovered to fill these “gaps” in the Group IIIA or Boron Family table which turned out to be correct as these elements were later discovered! Group IV A or Carbon Family Group VA or Nitrogen Family b. Lothar Meyer – independently proposed the same scheme as Mendeleev but Group VIA or Chalcogens – form soft minerals with metal (metal oxides) with some inaccuracies and promoted his proposal less so that Mendeleev. Group VIIA or Halogens – form salts with metal Group VIII A or Noble (Inert) Gases – does not usually combine with other c. Henry Moseley – proponent of the modern periodic table which arranges elements element according to increasing atomic number (number of protons) by interpreting Group B – transition metals his X-ray bombardment studies on various elements e. Period or Series – the elements that belong to the same row; they exhibit periodic trends in various physical and chemical properties; represent energy level of atomic orbital. 79 80 f. Metals - tend to lose electrons found which include most of the elements from group IA, IIA, and all group B elements. a. Luster - characteristic shine. b. Good conductors – allow heat and electricity to pass through since they have loose electrons on their orbitals. c. Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets. d. Ductile – can be drawn into fine wires. e. Solid – except for mercury, the only liquid metal at room temperature. g. Nonmetals - either solid, liquid, or gas. They tend to gain electrons and not lose them. They are insulators because they conduct heat and electricity poorly. When solid, they are dull and brittle. Group IIIA to VIII A elements are nonmetals except for a few metalloids. h. Metalloids - have intermediate characteristics between a metal and non-metal. They are considered as semiconductors which include boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and astatine (At). 81 82 PRACTICE QUESTIONS PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. In the modern periodic table of elements, they are arranged according to what 1. In the modern periodic table of elements, they are arranged according to what property? property? A. Increasing atomic mass C. Increasing atomic mass A. Increasing atomic mass C. Increasing atomic mass B. Increasing atomic number D. Decreasing atomic number B. Increasing atomic number D. Decreasing atomic number 2. Group VII A in the periodic table is known as what family? 2. Group VII A in the periodic table is known as what family? A. Noble gases C. Chalcogens A. Noble gases C. Chalcogens B. Alkali metals D. Halogens B. Alkali metals D. Halogens 3. Aluminum foil are very useful kitchen material. What property of metal is characterized 3. Aluminum foil are very useful kitchen material. What property of metal is characterized by the formation of aluminum into foil? by the formation of aluminum into foil? A. Luster C. Ductility A. Luster C. Ductility B. Malleability D. Conductivity B. Malleability D. Conductivity 83 84 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 14  25/09/2024 3. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS a. Quantum Theory states that electrons in atoms can have only certain discrete energies in 2. Azimuthal QN (l) – defines the shape of the orbital, it is also known as the subshell. It referred to as energy states or energy levels. can have integral values of l = 0....n-1. The value for l is designated by the letters s, p, d, 1. Normally, the electron is in the state of lowest energy called the ground state (n=1) and f for l values of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The s orbital is spherical in shape while p 2. By absorbing a certain definite amount of energy (quanta), the electron can move to a orbitals have dumbbell shape. higher level, called an excited state (n=2,3...). 3. When electrons return to lower energy levels, energy may be given off as light. The difference in energy between the levels can be deduced from the wavelength or frequency of 3. Magnetic QN (ml) – describes the orientation of the orbital in space. It can have integral the light. values, ml = -l...0...+l. For l = 1 (p orbital) the ml values are -1, 0, +1 which correspond to px, py, and pz respectively. The subscript x, y, and z refers to the spatial orientation at x, y, and z axis respectively. b. Quantum number set - describes the allowed energy states of electrons in atoms and molecules. The orbital is the region in space about the nucleus where electrons are located. 4. Magnetic Spin QN (ms) – describes the direction of electron spin (whether clockwise or The QN set consists of four quantum numbers (PrAzi MaMas) counterclockwise) which is designated as either spinning “up’ or “down”. It can have values 1. Principal QN (n) – is the energy level of an electron which can have integral values of n of +1/2 or -1/2 for spinning “up” or “down” = 1, 2, 3, 4..... As n increases, the orbital or shell becomes larger and energy increases. In the periodic table, the n values correspond to the series or period. 85 86 c. Representation of electrons in a particular orbital is done by using boxes. 1. Each box can contain two electrons in opposite spins, which are represented by arrows or Sphere fishhooks. 2. An “arrow up” and “arrow down” correspond to ms values of 1/2 and -1/2 respectively. 3. The s, p, d, and f orbitals are represented by 1, 3, 5, and 7 boxes and can therefore contain a maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. 4. The orientation (ml value) is designated as numbers atop the boxes from -l...0...+l. The Dumbbell electrons located at boxes on the same energy level are said to be generate degenerate. 87 88 d. There are three guiding rules or principles that are used in filling up the atomic orbitals: 2. Hund’s rule – also known as the maximum multiplicity rule, this states that for 1. Aufbau principle – also known as the building-up principle, this states that orbitals are filled degenerate orbitals the lowest energy is attained when the number of electrons with the same from the lowest to the highest energy level. The diagram below illustrates this principle: spin is maximized. Simply stated, you fill all the orbitals with arrow up first before pairing with an arrow down. For example, if you are to fill the p orbital with four electrons: 89 90 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 15  25/09/2024 3. Pauli’s exclusion principle – states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four QN. For example, for the two electrons of helium one will have a quantum of 1, 0, 0,1/2 while the other one is 1, 0, 0, -1/2, which shows no two electron can occupy the same space at the same time. e. Electron configuration (EC) - refers to the way in which the electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an atom. We use the three guiding rules above in writing the EC of an atom. a. The electron configuration jibes with the periodic table! Group IA and IIA represent the s-block elements. b. Group IIIA to VIIIA represent the p-block elements. The s- and p-blocks are said to be the representative elements. c. Group B or transition metals represent the d-block elements. Lastly, the lanthanide and actinide series represent the f-block elements. d. Meanwhile, the period or series number designates the energy level. Image Source: https://chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/e_config.html 91 92 f. Valence electrons - the excess EC from that of the noble gas are the PRACTICE QUESTIONS outermost electrons of an atom. They are responsible for the physical 1. What quantum number determine the shape of the atomic orbital? properties of an atom and the chemical reactions that it undergoes. A. Principal quantum number C. Magnetic quantum number 1. For the representative (group A) elements the valence electron is B. Azimuthal quantum number D. Magnetic spin quantum number equal to the group number, therefore Group IA has 1 valence electron while group IVA has four. 2. The atomic orbitals are filled up from the lowest to the highest energy level. This is 2. The noble gases (except helium) have eight valence electrons reflected in what fundamental principle or rule? which is said to be an octet. A. Aufbau’s principle C. Pauli’s exclusion principle B. Hund’s rule D. Quantum rule 3. Having an octet valency is the most stable configuration because here all the electrons are paired. Metals lose electron(s) to be at an 3. Carbon has a total 6 electrons. What is the correct electron configuration for carbon octet state while non-metals accept electron(s) to reach this stable atom? noble gas configuration. A. 1s2 2s2 2p3 C. 1s2 2s2 2p2 B. 1s2 2s2 2p5 D. 1s2 2s2 2p4 93 94 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 4. CHEMICAL BONDING 1. What quantum number determine the shape of the atomic orbital? a. Metallic bond – found in metallic solids wherein each metal atom is bonded A. Principal quantum number C. Magnetic quantum number to several neighboring atoms. This is represented best in the electron-sea B. Azimuthal quantum number D. Magnetic spin quantum number model where metal cations form a “sea” of mobile valence electrons. The loose electrons are responsible for the observed properties that are 2. The atomic orbitals are filled up from the lowest to the highest energy level. This is reflected in what fundamental principle or rule? unique for metals. A. Aufbau’s principle C. Pauli’s exclusion principle B. Hund’s rule D. Quantum rule b. Ionic bond – is the electrostatic attraction between a cation and an anion. Remember metals tend to lose and donate their electron(s) to non-metals to form 3. Carbon has a total 6 electrons. What is the correct electron configuration for carbon ionic compounds. atom? A. 1s2 2s2 2p3 C. 1s2 2s2 2p2 c. Covalent bonds – results from sharing of electrons between two atoms which B. 1s2 2s2 2p5 D. 1s2 2s2 2p4 are nonmetallic. 95 96 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 16  25/09/2024 d. Lewis symbol or electron-dot symbol - conveniently represent the valence electron of an atom. Each side of an atom is imagined to contain an orbital that can accommodate two electrons and are filled according to Hund’s rule. Again, for Group A elements the valence electron(s) is equal to the group number: 97 98 e. Remember that the goal of chemical bonding is to achieve an octet like the noble gases. Metals give up electron(s) while nonmetals gain electron(s) to achieve this state. This is understandable because metals have low electronegativity and ionization energy hence can easily lose valence electrons while nonmetals are the opposite. f. Formation of ionic bond can be illustrated below. The stability of ionic compounds is measured by its lattice energy. The greater is the difference in their ionization energy, the higher is the lattice energy. g. Since nonmetals have high ionization energy and electronegativity, their tendency is to share electrons rather than give them up completely. When electrons are shared it forms a covalent bond which in Lewis structure is drawn by a line connecting the two atoms. The electron pairs that are not involved in covalent bonding are represented as dots and are called as lone pairs. Image source: https://geeksforgeeks.org/covalent-bond/ 99 100 h. Molecular geometry - refers to the shape that a molecule has in space. That particular i. Symmetrical molecules - do not contain any lone pairs of electron, the following table shape is determined by the two types of electron pairs: the bonding pairs (lines) and lone summarizes the geometry of molecules based on AXn formula. Take note that a multiple pairs of electron (dots) around the central atom. The valence shell electron pair repulsion bond is counted as a single bonding pair! (VSEPR) model is useful in predicting the shape of a molecule. In general, VSEPR model states that the shape of a particular molecule is the one that minimizes the repulsion among electron pairs. 101 102 © Asst. Prof. Gideon A. Legaspi, RCh, MSc 17  25/09/2024 PRACTICE QUESTIONS PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. The type of bonding that is formed between a non-metallic and a metallic element is 1. The type of bonding that is formed between a non-metallic and a metallic element is called a/an ____? called a/an ____? A. Metallic bond C. Covalent bond A. Metallic bond C. Covalent bond B. Ionic bond D. Molecular bond B. Ionic bond D. Molecular bond 2. The valence electrons of oxygen atom is six, how many unpaired electron(s) would it 2. The valence electrons of oxygen atom is six, how many unpaired electron(s) would it possess in its Lewis structure? possess in its Lewis structure? A. One C. Three A. One C. Three B. Two D. Four B. Two D. Four 3. The symmetrical molecule carbon dioxide, would have a molecular geometry or shape 3. The symmetrical molecule carb