SNC2D1 Science Notes 2024 PDF

# SNC2D1 Exam ## Optics ### Types of light: - **Incandescence:** Producing light as a result of high temperature (ex. candle) - **Electric Discharge:** Producing light by passing an Electrical Current through gas (ex. neon sign) - **Phosphorescence:** Absorbing Ultraviolet light, low emission light...

# SNC2D1 Exam ## Optics ### Types of light: - **Incandescence:** Producing light as a result of high temperature (ex. candle) - **Electric Discharge:** Producing light by passing an Electrical Current through gas (ex. neon sign) - **Phosphorescence:** Absorbing Ultraviolet light, low emission light over a long extended time. - **Fluorescence:** Immediate emission of visible light after absorbing Ultraviolet light - **Chemiluminescence:** Result of a chemical reaction with little to no heat produced - **Bioluminescence:** Light in a living organism as a result of a chemical reaction with little to no heat - **Triboluminescence:** Producing light from friction from scratching, rubbing, or crushing certain crystals. The shorter the wavelength means the photon has more energy, since the frequency is higher. ### Concave Mirror: | Feature | Value | Description | |--------------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------| | Image Size | Larger | The image is larger than the object | | Orientation | Inverted | The image is upside down compared to the object | | Image Location | Behind F | The image is located behind the focal point (F) | | Type | Real | The image is formed by the actual intersection of light rays | ### Convex | Feature | Value | Description | |--------------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------| | Image Size | Smaller | The image is smaller than the object | | Orientation | Upright | The image is the same way up as the object. | | Image Location | Same side as object | The image is located on the same side of the mirror as the object | | Type | Virtual | The image is formed where reflected light rays appear to meet | ### Real life examples: Plane: regular mirror in house Concave: glasses, telescope Convex: Shaving mirrors, Spoon, Parking Lot mirrors. ### Law of Reflection: 1. Angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (o=e) 2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane. ### Specular Reflection: Reflection of light off a smooth, shiny surface (angle of reflection will be the same for all light rays) ### Diffuse Reflection: Reflection of light off a dull or irregular surface (each light ray will have a different angle of reflection, causing the image to be less clear) ### Refraction: The change in direction of a light ray at a boundary between two different media as a result of change in speed of the light ray. ### Index of Refraction: The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium. ### Calculation: $n = \frac{velocity (vacuum)}{velocity (medium)}$ C = 3.00 x 10⁸ m/s ALWAYS ### Bending of light: - A ray of light goes from faster to slower if it enters any substance with a higher refractive index (air into glass) - A ray of light goes from slower to faster if it enters any substance with a lower refractive index (water into air). ### Snell's Law: $n_1 sin θ_1 = n_2 sin θ_2$ ### Thin Lens Equation: $\frac{1}{do} + \frac{1}{di} = \frac{1}{f}$ #### Explanation: - Used to finding location and type of image. - + (di) means real image - - (di) means virtual ### Magnification Equation: $m = \frac{-di}{do} = \frac{hi}{ho}$ #### Explanation: - **do** = object distance - **di** = image distance ### When light refracts through water, the refraction of the surface. **If the light moves slower, the light bends towards the normal.** **If the light moves faster, the light bends away from the normal.** ### To calculate index of refraction: $n = \frac{c}{v}$ Snell's Law: ${n_1 sin θ_1 = n_2 sin θ_2}$ ### Critical Angle & Total Internal Reflection ### Physics ## Concave Mirror - Image Size: Larger - Orientation: Upright - Image Location: Behind C - Image Type: Virtual ## Converging lens - Image Size: Larger - Orientation: Upside down - Image Location: Behind object - Image Type: Real ## Convex mirror - Image Size: Smaller - Orientation: Upside down - Image Location: In front of object - Image Type: Real ## Diverging lens - Image Size: Same size - Orientation: Upright - Image Location: Behind mirror - Image Type: Virtual ## Biology ## Cell Theory: 1. All living things are made up of one or more cells. 2. Cells are the basic unit of life. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. ### Organelles + Functions: - **Endoplasmic Reticulum:** Fluid-filled tubes that transport materials like protein throughout the cell. - **Ribosomes:** Make protein for the cell. - **Vacuoles:** Act as storage for water, waste, and other materials (Plants have one large vacuole while animal cells have many small ones) - **Nucleus:** Controls everything that happens in the cell. - **Cell Membrane:** Thin skin that protects the cell and gives its shape. Controls the passage of materials - **Cytoplasm:** Where most life functions take place. Located between nucleus and membrane. - **Cell Wall:** Provides structural support and protection. Made of cellulose (PLANT ONLY) - **Chloroplasts:** Absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. Contains Chlorophyll which gives leaves their green color (PLANT ONLY) Plant cells are more cubic in shape and have a cell wall and chloroplasts unlike animal cells which are circular. ### Cell Cycle: - **Interphase:** The cell duplicates the DNA in the cell and creates an identical set. - **Mitosis:** - **Prophase:** Chromosomes become visible and nuclear membrane dissolves. - **Metaphase:** Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each cell. - **Anaphase:** Chromatids separate and chromosomes are pulled to separate sides of the cell. - **Telophase:** Chromosomes unwind. Spindle fibers disappear. Nuclear membrane forms around the new set of chromosomes - **Cytokinesis:** Division of cytoplasm and creation of two genetically identical daughter cells. ### Hierarchy of Structure: 1. Individual Cell 2. Collection of cells: Tissues 3. Collection of tissues: Organ 4. Collection of organs: Organ System 5. Collection of different organ Systems: Organism ## Circulatory System: ### Function: - Transports substances around the body, carries away waste, fights infections and regulates body temperature. ### Organs: - **Heart:** Muscular pump that moves blood around the body. - **Blood** - **Blood Vessels** ### Types of Tissue: 1. Cardiac muscle tissue 2. Nerve Tissue 3. Connective Tissue 4. Epithelial Tissue ### Arteries: - Carries the blood away from the heart (High in Nutrients and Oxygen). ### Veins: - Carries the blood towards the heart (Low in nutrients and oxygen). - Right Atrium - Right Ventricle - Lungs - Left Atrium - Left Ventrical - Body. ## Digestive System ### Function: - Takes in, breaks up, absorbs food and then excretes the waste. ### Organs: - **Mouth** - **Esophagus** - **Stomach** - **Small Intestine** - **Large Intestine** - **Rectum** - **Anus** ### Accessory Organs: - **Pancreas:** Produces enzymes to help break down food. - **Liver:** Regulates chemicals and blood. Excretes bile. - **Gallbladder:** Stores and releases bile to help break down fat. ### Digestive Tract: - Mouth → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Anus ### Mechanical Digestion: - Breaking down food manually by using your teeth and chewing. ### Chemical Digestion: - Breaking down food using enzymes and saliva. ## Respiratory System ### Function: - Add oxygen to blood, and remove CO2 from blood. ### Organs: - **Nose** - **Bronchioles** - **Mouth** - **Lungs** - **Pharynx** - **Alveoli** - **Trachea** - **Diaphragm** - **Bronchi** ### Pathway of Air: 1. Air enters through the mouth and nose 2. Air passes through the pharynx 3. Travels down the windpipe to the trachea 4. Trachea separates into 2 branches called bronchi which branch into smaller bronchioles 5. Air will reach the alveoli at the end of the branches where gas exchange occurs. ### Gas Exchange: - Each alveoli is surrounded by tiny capillaries. Oxygen and CO2 get diffuse through two thin walls - the wall of capillaries and the wall of alveoli. ### How Breathing Works: - Moving air in and out of the lungs. When inhaling, your chest expands and diaphragm contracts (down). When exhaling, your chest contracts and diaphragm relaxes (goes up). ## Musculoskeletal System: ### Function: - Supports the body, protects organs, makes movement possible. ### Tissue Types: - **Bone Tissue:** Hard and dense. Consist of bone cells surrounded by a matrix of minerals and collagen fibers. - **Muscle Tissue:** Consists of long cells called muscle fibers. - **Skeletal (voluntary) muscle tissue** - **Smooth (involuntary) muscle tissue** - Found in the intestines - **Cardiac (involuntary) muscle tissue** - Found in the heart ### Tendon: - Connect bone to muscle. ### Ligament: - Connect bone to bone. ## Nervous System: ### Function: - Senses the environment and coordinates an appropriate response. ### Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord): - Brain is the control center of the body. - Some functions are voluntary (speaking, walking) - Some functions are involuntary (heartbeat, digestion) - The brain receives information from the peripheral nervous system through the spinal cord and sends it out to the peripheral system through the spinal cord. ### Peripheral Nervous System - Relays information about the internal and external environment to the brain. - Relays instructions from the brain to control many of the body's functions and responses. ### Diseases and Disorders - **Diabetes:** A disease in which produces too little or no insulin (DIGESTIVE) - **Coronary Artery Disease:** Reduction of blood flow due to a buildup of plaque in your coronary arteries (CIRCULATORY) - **Heart Attack:** If Coronary arteries become completely blocked with plaque or a blood clot. Heart stops pumping blood and heart tissue dies (CIRCULATORY) - **Osteoporosis:** Loss of calcium in the bones (brittle bone) bone mass lessens. - **Multiple Sclerosis:** Destroys myelin sheaths making the neurons less effective communicating. ### Stem Cells: - **Adult:** Are only able to differentiate into certain types of cells. - **Embryonic:** Can differentiate into any kind of cell. ### Medical Use: - Stem cell transplantation has been used to treat leukemia. Also, be used to produce healthy and cancer-free blood after chemotherapy. ### Cancer: - Caused by a mutation in the DNA that controls the cell cycle (Genetically of Environmental). - Prevented by eating super foods, no smoking, exercise, minimize exposure to carcinogens. - Screening can be done by your doctor with endoscopy, x-ray, ultrasound, CT scanning, and MRI. Or at home if you check your skin for moles ## Chemistry: ### Physical Properties and Changes - **Observed with Senses** - **Determined without destroying matter** - **A change in size, shape, or state** - **No new substance is formed** ### Pure Substance: - A substance that is made up of only one type of particle (oxygen gas) | Property | Change | |----------------|-----------------| | Pure Substance | More than one type | ### Mixture: - A substance that is made up of at least 2 different particles. | Property | Change | |----------------|-----------------| | Mixture | One type | ### Chemical Families | Chemical Family | Properties | |--------------------------|-----------------------------| | Alkali Metals | Electrical Conductivity, luster, ductile, malleable, highly reactive | | Alkali Earth Metals | Luster, ductile, hard | | Transition Metals | Malleable, high density, high melting points | | Halogens | Poor conductors, dull, brittle, low melting points | | Noble gases | Odorless, colorless, nonflammable | ### Valence Electrons: - The number of electrons on the last orbital shell (valence shell) ### Metals: - Hard - Lustrous - Malleable - Ductile - Good conductor of electricity ### Non-Metals: - Dull - Brittle - Low malleability - Poor conductors of electricity ### Ionic Compounds: - **Binary Ionic Compounds:** Ionic compounds where only two elements make up the chemical formula - **Ionic Compound:** Metal + non-metal, Positive and negative ions attracted to each other ### Naming Binary Ionic Compounds: 1. Metal is written first. - Metal name does not change 2. The Non-Metal is written second. - Non-metal name ends in **-IDE**. ### Multivalent Ionic Compounds: - Ionic Compounds that have metals with more than one possible ionic charge. - (ex. Copper can form 2 ions Cu+ or Cu²⁺) - These atoms are called multivalent metals and they are found in the transition metals. ### Writing Chemical Formula 1. Write Symbols 2. Write Charges 3. Criss-cross charges and reduce ### Polyatomic Ion: - An ion that consists of a stable group of several atoms acting together as a single charged particle ### Molecular Compounds: - Composed of two or more non-metal atoms that share electrons with one another in a covalent bond. ### Structure of an Atom: - **Nucleus:** - Contains protons & neutrons - **Orbitals Shells:** - Contains the electrons ### Ion: - An atom that has lost or gained electron(s) ### Types of Compounds: - **Ionic Compound:** Formed between a metal and a non-metal sharing electrons with each other. - **Molecular Compound:** Composed of two non-metals or more sharing electrons in a covalent bond. ### Types of Bonding: - **Ionic Bonding:** Occurs when a metal atom gives electrons to a non-metal atom. - **Covalent Bonding:** A bond that results from the sharing of valence electrons between 2 or more non-metal atoms. ### The Rutherford Diagrams - Diagram with protons and neutrons in the center and the electrons orbiting around the nucleus. ### Lewis Dot Diagrams: - Diagram that uses dots to represent the valence electrons in an atom. ### Types of Reactions: | Type | Description | |---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Synthesis | 2 reactants - 1 product | | Decomposition | 1 reactants - 2 or more products | | Single Displacement | AB + C - A + BC | | Double Displacement | A1B + CD - AC + BD | | Combustion | Reaction where fuel 'burns' or reacts quickly with oxygen. Usually, produces CO₂, H₂O, and energy. | | Complete Combustion | Reaction of hydrocarbon that uses all fuel and produces CO2, H2O, and energy | | Incomplete Combustion | If not enough oxygen, new products are produced with usual CO2 and H2O | | Neutralization | Reaction where acid + base = ionic compound + H2O. Resulting pH close to 7 (neutral). | ### Law of Conservation of Mass: - In any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products. - **LS = RS** (total number of atoms) (mass) ### Acids and Bases: - **Binary Acids:** "hydro (root of non-metal)-ic acid" - HF=hydrofluoric acid - **Oxyacids:** "Root of polyatomic ion) ic acid" - HNO3 = Nitric acid - **Base:** Name of ionic compound the hydroxide. Ca(OH)₂ = Calcium Hydroxide. ### pH Scale: - Measures how acidic or basic a solution is (0-14) - pH below 7 = acidic (more H ions). - pH above 7 = basic (more OH ions). ### Properties of Acids: - Conducts electricity - Taste sour - Turns blue litmus red - Neutralize bases - Act as preservatives - Useful in the food industry ### Properties of Bases: - Aqueous solutions (like acids) - Conducts electricity - Taste bitter - Ionic compounds that contain hydroxide (OH⁻) - When placed in water, they can conduct electricity ### Types of Reactions - **Synthesis:** A + B → AB (Coming together) - **Decomposition:** AB → A + B (Separating) - **Single Displacement:** A + BC → B + AC (One switching) - **Double Displacement:** AB + CD → CB + AD (Always oxy-ions in order and CO₂ - **Complete Combustion:** X + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + energy (always creates water, carbon dioxide and carbon) - **Incomplete Combustion:** X + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + CO ### Acids: - **Binary Acids:** Compounds with 2 elements - **Oxyacids:** Acid containing polyatomic ions. ### Bases: - NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide) ### Neutralizing: Acid+Base→Salt+Water: H⁺+X⁻ + OH⁻+X⁺ → H₂O + X⁻X¹ ### pH Scale: - pH = acidity of a solution scale. - 0-14 scale. - 0-6: Acids - 7: Neutral - 8-14: Bases ### Chemistry - **Observations using 5 senses** ### Quantitative properties: - No numerical value (color, odor & texture) ### Qualitative properties: - Numerical valve (temp., volume, density, length, & mass) ### Physical Properties: - **Optical Clarity** - **Hardness** - **Brittleness** - **Malleability** - **Ductility** - **Viscosity** - **Solubility** - **Electrical conductivity** ### Chemical Properties - Determined when the composition of the substance is changed. ### Chemical Reaction: - The process of a chemical change occurring. ### Evidence of Chemical Change: - **Change in color** - **Change in odor** - **Production of gas** - **Change in temp and light** - **Form of a precipitate** - **Odd of the same properties*** ### Groups: - Share the same properties. ### Lewis Dot - Valence Electrons ### Polyatomic Ions: - Ion that is a stable group of several atoms acting as one single charged particle ### Word Equations - Substance + Substance → New compound. - Ex: Na (g) + Cl₂ (g) → NaCl (s) ### Ionic Compound - Metal + Non-metal - Common atoms lose or gain electrons. - **Ions** - Lose electrons = Cation (+) - Gain electrons = Anion (-) - To be stable, all atoms want a full outer Valence Shell ### Covalent Bond - Bond that results in sharing of valence electrons forming a molecule. - This type of bond uses subscripts. ### Law of Conservation of Mass - Mass of reactants = mass of products. - **No mass is gained or lost**. ## The Nervous System - Organ system that senses the environment and coordinates an appropriate response. ### Nervous System: - **Central Nervous System:** - Brain & Spinal Cord - **Peripheral Nervous System:** - Nerves that connect the body to the nervous system. ### Peripheral Nervous System: - Relays information about the internal and external environment. ### Three groups of nerves: - Nerves that control voluntary muscles - Nerves that carry information from sensory organs (senses) - Nerves that regulate involuntary functions (breathing, heart beat) ### Central Nervous System: - Brain is the control center of the body. - Some functions are voluntary. - Some functions are involuntary. - The brain receives signals from the peripheral nervous system through the spinal cord and sends out signals to peripheral systems through the spinal cord. ### Nerve Tissues: - Nervous tissues are made up of special cells called neurons. - The structure of neurons enables them to send information around the body, using electrical signals (nerve impulses), from one place to another. ### Bundles of neurons that are surrounded by connective tissue. ### Multiple Sclerosis - A malfunction of the immune system. - Destroys myelin sheaths of neurons in the central nervous system. - Neurons less effective of communicating to each other. ### Structure: - The axons of neurons covered in fatty materials called **myelin**. - **Myelin** acts as insulation and stops nerve signals from going on the wrong path. ## Musculoskeletal System - The organ system is made up of bone and skeletal muscle. ### Skeleton: ### Function: - Supports the body - Protects delicate organs - Makes movement possible ### Connective Tissues: - **Bones** - **Ligaments** - **Cartilage** ### Osteoporosis: - Loss of bone tissue. - Makes bones brittle and weak. - Loss in calcium. ### Muscle: - **Bone tissues:** Hard & dense: bone cells surrounded by a matrix of minerals (calcium, phosphorous). - **Ligaments:** Tough, elastic connective tissues that hold bones together at the joints. - **Cartilage:** Dense connective tissues found in the ear, nose, esophagus, the discs between our vertebrae, and joints. Made up of special cells in a matrix of collagen fibers. Provides strong, flexible, low friction support for bones and other tissues. ### Bundles of long cells called muscle fibers that contain specialized proteins. - When they contract, muscles get shorter and thicken. ### Types of Muscle Tissue: - **Skeletal (Voluntary)** Muscle Tissue: Found in the intestines. - **Smooth (Involuntary)** Muscle Tissue: Found in the intestines. - **Cardiac (Involuntary)** Muscle Tissue: Found in the heart. ### Support, Protection and Movement - Skeleton provides structure and support for our bodies and anchor points for our muscles. - Protects the soft internal organs (ex. Ribs protecting the lungs). - Stores calcium & minerals which is needed by the organism. - Some bones contain marrow which is needed to produce red and white blood cells. - Cartilage provides a smooth surface where bones join together, preventing damage. ### Tendons: - Connect bone to muscle ### Ligaments: - Connect bone to bone. ### How Muscles Make Bones Move: - Muscles contract as a response to the nervous system. - They exert force. - Muscles can pull but not push so they work in opposing pairs/groups. ## The Respiratory System ### Pathway of Air: 1. Air enters through mouth and nose. 2. Air passes the pharynx. 3. Travels down trachea. 4. Trachea separates into bronchi and into bronchioles. 5. Air reaches alveoli and the end of the branches where gas exchange takes place. ### Structural Features: - Trachea & Bronchi are lined with epithelial cells. - They secrete mucus. - Hair-like projections: cilia - Trachea is surrounded by cartilage - Protects trachea - Allows open air flow. ### Gas Exchange: - Occurs in alveoli. - CO₂ leaves and O₂ enters by diffusion. - As oxygen enters the lungs and to the alveoli, each alveoli is surrounded by tiny capillaries - the carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse through the walls of the capillaries and alveoli. ### Diffusion: - Particles moving from high concentration to low concentration. ### This connects with the circulatory system. - Blood and air swap CO₂ & O₂ in the lungs. ### Breathing: - Moving air in (inhalation). - Pushing it out (exhalation). - This process involves muscles that move ribs making ribcage expand and contract. ### Diaphragm (Muscle): - Is also involved in breathing. - Decreases the volume of the lungs. ### Breathing is involuntary. - We can override this, and control it temporarily. - Controlled by a part of the brain that detects the concentration. ## Circulatory System - Transports substances, carries away waste, transports white blood cells. ### The Heart: - The heart is a muscular pump that moves blood to all parts of the body. - Divided into 2 sides, left and right. - In total, 4 chambers. ### 4 Tissues: - Cardiac - Nerve - Connective - Epithelial ### Blood - **Plasma:** Protein-rich liquid (mostly water) that carries blood cells. - **White Blood Cells:** Fights infections. - **Platelets:** Assist the formation of blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding. - **Red Blood Cells:** Contains hemoglobin (makes blood red) and transports oxygen. ### Blood Vessels: - **Arteries:** Carry blood away from the heart. - **Veins:** Towards the heart, blood that is low in O₂. - **Capillaries:** Tiny blood vessels with very thin walls that allow substances to diffuse between the blood and other body fluids and tissues. ### Coronary Artery Disease - Arteries that provide blood to the heart tissue become blocked with plaque. - Can be caused by poor lifestyle choices. - When fully blocked, it causes a heart attack ## Digestive System: - The system that takes in, breaks up, and absorbs food and then excretes the waste. ### Digestive tract: - Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. ### Accessory Organs: - Connect to the digestive tract. - Liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. - Lined with epithelial tissue. These cells end up secreting mucus. - Layers of muscles and tissues. ### The Mouth: - Starts the process of digestion. - **Mechanically:** Teeth & tongue - **Chemically:** Chemicals called enzymes through saliva. ### The Esophagus: - Muscular tube connecting the mouth to the stomach. - Smooth muscle tissue. Contracts without conscious thought. ### The Stomach: - Epithelial tissues and connective tissues. - Hold food and break it apart to continue digestion. Contains cells that produce digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. - Supplied with hormones that signal when we have had enough to eat. ### Liver: - Produces bile. ### Pancreas: - Digestive enzymes: - Insulin ### Gallbladder: - Digestive enzymes ### Small Intestine: - Where absorption of nutrients takes place. ### Large Intestine (colon): - Where water from food is absorbed. - The waste is moved to the anus. ### Rectum & Anus: - Undigested unabsorbed food waste is stored in the rectum and eventually excreted through the anus. ### Diabetes: - When pancreas creates little to no insulin. ## 3.2 Stem Cells - A cell that can differentiate into many different types of cells. ### 2 Types: - **Embryonic:** Can differentiate into any kind of cell. - **Tissue:** Can only differentiate into certain types of cells. - The DNA of a cell will tell it what specialized cell it will become. ### Umbilical Cord (Blood Banking) - Blood found in the umbilical cord immediately after birth is rich in stem cells. - This blood can be saved and stored to help save the child's life in the future. - Can help treat leukemia. ## 3.1 Hierarchy of Structure ### Simple → Complex: | Structure | Description | |---------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Individual Cells | | | Collection of Cells | Tissues | | Collection of Tissues | Organs | | Collection of Organs | Organ System (collection of organs with a common purpose) | | Collection of System | Organism (collection of systems that make a functioning living thing) | ### Tissues: - **Epithelial Tissue:** - Thin sheets of packed cells covering body surfaces, lines internal organs & body cavities. - Protection from dehydration, & minimize friction - Skin, lining of digestive system - **Connective Tissue:** - Various types of cells and fibers held together by a liquid, a solid gel known as a matrix. - Support, protection, insulation - Bones, tendons, blood, fat - **Muscle Tissue:** - Bundles of long cells called muscle fibers that contain specialized proteins capable of shortening (contraction) & movement. - Heart, muscles that make bones move, intestinal muscles. - **Nerve Tissue:** - Long, thin cells with branches at the ends capable of conducting electrical impulses. - Sensory, communication with body, coordination of body functions - Brain, Spinal Cord. ## 2.7 Cancer - A group of diseases in which cells grow and divide out of control. ### 2 Types: - **Benign:** - Cells stay together - Not cancerous - **Malignant:** - Cells don't stay together - Interfere with tissues - Are cancerous ### Cancer Treatment: - **Surgery:** Removing cancerous tissue. - **Chemotherapy:** Using drugs by killing parts of cells and body - stops it from spreading. - **Radiation:** Stop the daughter cells from dividing by damaging them by radiation. ### Why is Cancer so Hard to Treat: - It's hard to eliminate the cells if they are multiplying so quickly. - It's hard to kill the cells without killing the other vital cells. ## Mitosis - PMAT ### Prophase: - Chromosomes become visible. - Membrane dissolves. - Spindle fibers move to opposite sides. ### Metaphase: - Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. - Spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each chromosome. ### Anaphase: - Sister chromatids split. - Forming chromosomes - Gathered at each side of the pole. ### Telophase: - Nucleolus around each new set of chromosomes - Division of nucleus is complete. ### Cytokinesis: - Division of cytoplasm to create 2 identical daughter cells. - The process starts again. ## 2.4 Cell Division ### Reproduction: - Each time a cell divides, it creates two organisms. - **Asexual Reproduction:** - Each cell is an identical clone - exact DNA - **Sexual Reproduction:** - 2 parent cells and create new DNA/mix of 2 parent DNA. ### Repairing: - Cells can divide to repair damage. - Bone cells divide to heal bones. - Red blood cells replace cells by dividing. ### Growth: - It's important to have enough cells in the organism for all to function. - It is better to have many small cells than one big cell. ### Cell Cycle: 1. **Interphase:** Makes copies of DNA 2. **Mitosis** Cell nucleus & DNA divide 3. **Cytokinesis** Division of cytoplasm and creation of new cells ### The cells' activities are controlled by checkpoints. - Proteins send messages to the nucleus, then instructs the cell to divide or to not divide. ### 1. Interphase: - DNA strands are duplicated - Ready to being cell division ## Plant Cell & Animal Cell: - Diagram of the cell with the following organelles labeled: - **Plant Cell:** - **Cell Wall** - **Cell Membrane** - **Nucleus** - **Mitochondria** - **Endoplasmic Reticulum** - **Chloroplast** - **Ribosome** - **Cytoplasm** - **Large Vacuole** - **Animal Cell:** - **Vacuole** - **Cell Membrane** - **Cytoplasm** - **Endoplasmic Reticulum** - **Nucleus** - **Ribosomes** - **Mitochondria** ## Chapter 2: Biology ### The Cell Theory: - All living things are made up of one or more cells. - Cells are the basic unit of life. - All cells come from pre-existing cells. ### Prokaryote: - Simple, small cells ### Eukaryote: - Larger, complex cells ### Plant & Animal Cells: - **Organelle:** A cell structure that performs a specific function. ### Organelles in Plant & Animal Cells: - **Cytoplasm:** Where organelles are suspended. - **Cell Membrane:** Supports the cell structure. - **Nucleus:** Contains chromosomes. - **Mitochondria:** 'Powerhouse.' Makes energy available. - **Endoplasmic Reticulum:** Transports materials such as proteins throughout the cell.. - **Ribosomes:** Makes proteins for the cell. - **Vacuoles:** Stores water, waste, and other items. ### Organelles in Plant Cells: - **Cell Wall:** Provides structure. Made of cellulose. - **Central Vacuole:** One large vacuole. (Larger than many small) - **Chloroplasts:** Gives plants their green color. Contains chlorophyill. Helps with photosynthesis.