Schacter 6e Canadian Psychology Lectureslides Chapter 6 PDF - Memory

Chapter 6 Memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Chapter Outline  What Is Memory? ...

Chapter 6 Memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Chapter Outline  What Is Memory?  Encoding: Transforming Perceptions Into Memories  Storage: Maintaining Memories Over Time  Retrieval: Bringing Memories to Mind Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Forms of Long-Term Memory: More Than One Kind  Memory Failures: The Seven “Sins” of Memory PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition What Is Memory?  Memory: Ability to store and retrieve information over time  Three key functions of memory  Encoding  Storage Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Retrieval PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Digit Memory Test  How many digits can you remember? Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Encoding: Transforming Perceptions Into Memories  Memories are made by combining information we already have with new information coming in.  Memories are constructed.  There are three major ways to encode. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Semantic encoding  Visual imagery encoding  Organizational encoding PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Semantic Encoding  Semantic encoding  Process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory  Uniquely associated with increased activity in Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Brain Activity During Different Types of Judgements Evidence from fMRI studies reveals that different parts of the brain are active during different types of judgements: (a) During semantic encoding, the lower-left frontal lobe is active. (b) During visual imagery Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved encoding, the occipital lobe is active. (c) During organizational encoding, the upper left frontal lobe is active. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Seminal Encoding: Seminal Research  Toronto researchers Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving presented participants with a series of words and asked them to make one of three types of judgements.  Semantic judgements  Rhyme judgements  Case judgements Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved What did they find? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Visual Imagery Encoding  Visual imagery encoding  Process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures  Visual imagery encoding produces neural changes in visual and memory networks that support enhanced memory performance.  Smartphone app was used to provide successful training in visual imagery to encode new Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved information. Why did it work so well? PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Organizational Encoding  Organizational encoding  Process of categorizing information according to relationships among series of items  Current experiences are organized by segmenting the ongoing flow of events into Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved meaningful units.  Sorting items into categories is effective way to enhance subsequent recall of those items. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Organizing Words Into a Hierarchy Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved All three forms of encoding can be used as mnemonics. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Encoding of Survival-Related Information  Based on Darwin’s principle of natural selection, memory mechanisms that aid survival should be passed down.  In an experiment, three different encoding tasks were used.  Survival encoding yielded better memory, perhaps Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved drawing from elaborative, visual imagery, and organizational encoding.  Superior recall is also observed for scenarios that involve planning, but not survival. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Survival-Related Information Enhances Later Recall Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Storage: Maintaining Memories Over Time  Three kinds of storage are distinguished primarily by amount of time over which a memory is retained.  Sensory storage: Storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less  Iconic memory: Fast-decaying store of visual Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved information  Echoic memory: Fast-decaying store of auditory information PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Iconic Memory Test Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Flow of Information Through the Memory System Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Short-term storage and Working Memory  Short-term memory (STM): Storage that holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds, but less than a minute  Rehearsal  Chunking  Working memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Rehearsal and Chunking Strengthen Memory  Rehearsal  Process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it  Serial position effect  First few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle.  Recency effect Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Chunking  Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short- term memory PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Decline of Short-Term Memory  A 1959 experiment showed how quickly short-term memory fades without rehearsal.  Memory for the consonant strings declined rapidly, from approximately 80% after a 3- second delay to virtually nothing after a 20-second delay. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  These results suggest that information can be held in the short-term memory store for about 15 to 20 seconds. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Serial Position Effect  Which of the books in the Harry Potter series are you likely to most easily recall, according to the serial position effect? Serial position effect Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Primacy effect Recency effect PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Working Memory Model  Working memory stores and manipulates information.  Working memory model  Includes a limited-capacity memory system  Refers to active maintenance of information in short-term storage  Involves two subsystems whose information is coded by Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the episodic buffer  Visio-spatial sketchpad  Phonological loop  Suggests a link between this part of the working memory system and the ability to learn language PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition A Refined Model of Working Memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Working Memory and Cognition  Neurological damage to phonological loop subsystem of working memory  Related to problems holding on to strings of digits and letters for a few seconds; difficulty learning novel words  Measure of working memory capacity  Predicted individual differences in self-reported compliance with social distancing guidelines (COVID) Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Brain-imaging studies  Indicated children’s low scores on working memory tasks related to new learning and classroom performance difficulty PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Maintaining Memories Over Time  Episodic buffer  Automatically combines separate items into an integrated whole  Plays a role in learning to recognize words  Integrates other kinds of sensory information  Improvements are seen in several areas. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Working memory  Math tasks  Research is still in early stages. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Long-Term Storage  Long-term memory (LTM)  Holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years  Has no known capacity limits  People can recall items from long-term memory even if they haven’t thought of them for years. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Researchers have found that even 50 years after graduation, people can accurately recognize about 90% of their high school classmates from yearbook photographs. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Hippocampus as Index: Linking Pieces Into One Memory (part 1)  Case of HM who had his hippocampus (temporal lobe) removed to prevent seizures  Had STM, but no LTM  Evidence from hippocampal cell firing patterns in mice supports this idea.  Anterograde amnesia: Inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Retrograde amnesia: Inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Hippocampus Patient Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Hippocampus as Index: Linking Pieces Into One Memory (part 2)  Consolidation: Process by which memories become stable in the brain  Stabilizes memories  Reconsolidation: Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Disrupting Reconsolidation and Traumatic Memory Reduction  The Boston Marathon bombings produced detailed and disturbing memories in people at or near the site of the bombings.  Research shows that the Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved amount of detail in those memories can be reduced by interfering with their reconsolidation. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memories, Neurons, and Synapses  Connections between neurons are strengthened by their communication, making communication easier the next time.  Provides neurological basis for long-term memory  Sea slug Aplysia  Long-term potentiation (LTP): Process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved strengthens the connection, making further communication easier  Has a number of properties that indicate to researchers the important role it plays in long-term memory storage PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Hot Science: Can Sleep Enhance Learning? Yes!  More research needed to determine if sleep plays an active role in memory consolidation or interference prevention.  Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) can enhance memory consolidation.  Effects are stronger for associations not well learned initially.  TMR learning effects related to REM sleep in foreign language vocabulary learning. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  TMR effects are statistically significant across experiments, but only when TMR is administered during stage 2 and slow-wave sleep. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Retrieval Cues  Information is sometimes available in memory even when momentarily inaccessible.  Retrieval cues: External information Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved associated with stored information that helps bring that information to mind PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Providing Cues  External context provides cues.  Encoding specificity principle: Idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded  Inner states also provide cues. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  State-dependent retrieval: Tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Matching Encoding and Retrieval Contexts Improve Recall.  Transfer-appropriate processing: Proposes memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match  Cognitive Interview (CI): Developed to Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved enhance the memory of eyewitnesses for everyday experiences; context reinstatement; contact tracing (COVID-19) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Consequences of Retrieval (part 1)  Retrieval can strengthen a retrieved memory (especially long term); it can also cause forgetting.  Retrieval-induced forgetting: Process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved items (frontal lobe suppresses competing information) PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Testing Benefits Long-Term Retention  Study condition results in a slightly higher recall with a 5- minute retention interval.  Results change dramatically with retention intervals of 2 days and 1 week.  At these longer delays, the Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved study–test condition yields much higher recall levels than the study–study condition (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Consequences of Retrieval (part 2)  Retrieval can improve subsequent memory.  Retrieval can impair subsequent memory. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Retrieval can change subsequent memory. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition PET Scans of Successful and Unsuccessful Recall Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Forms of Long-Term Memory: More Than One Kind  Memories can be broken down into two types.  Explicit memory: Act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences  Implicit memory: Influence of past Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved experiences on later behaviour, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Forms of Long-Term Memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Implicit Memory  Procedural memory: Gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things  Things remembered are automatically translated into actions.  Brain regions outside hippocampal area are involved.  Priming: Enhanced ability to think of a stimulus as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus; less cortical activation (perceptual and conceptual Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved priming)  Priming makes some information more accessible.  Things remembered are automatically translated into actions. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Long-Term Priming of Visual Objects  Participants who viewed drawings of common objects and 17 years later were given a test in which they tried to identify the objects from fragmented drawings (longitudinal group) showed a strong priming effect. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  By contrast, participants who had not seen the drawings 17 years earlier (control group) showed nonsignificant priming (Mitchell, 2006). PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Procedural Memory and Priming Do Not Rely on the Hippocampus  Priming is associated with reduced activity in various cortex regions that are activated when performing unprimed tasks.  Neuroimaging studies also indicate that different brain systems are involved in two Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved distinct forms of priming.  Perceptual priming  Conceptual priming PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Primed and Unprimed Processing of Stimuli  Priming is associated with reduced activation levels in the cortex on several different tasks. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Explicit Memory: Semantic and Episodic  Semantic memory: Network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world  Episodic memory: Collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved particular time and place  Involves mental time travel  Contributes to imagination and creativity PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Episodic Memory  Episodic memory  Helps to envision personal futures through divergent creative thinking  Allows combination of elements of past experiences in new ways to mentally enable different versions of what might happen  Divergent creative thinking  Generates creative ideas by combining different types of information in new ways Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  AUT  Coupling between core and executive networks is key feature of divergent creative thinking.  TMS impaired performance occurred on both the AUT and a task that involved imagining future experiences. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Remembering the Past and Imagining the Future Depend on a Common Core Network of Brain Regions Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition A World of Difference: Do We All Reexperience Our Personal Pasts?  Severely deficient autobiographical memory (SDAM): Otherwise, high-functioning people cannot vividly reexperience past events, even though they know they happened.  Structural MRI scans showed reduced volume in the right hippocampus of SDAM individuals.  Individual differences in the ability to recall episodic details Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved positively correlated with the volume of a particular subregion within the hippocampus known as DG/CA2/3 (dentate gyrus/cornu ammonis regions 2 and 3).  Aphantasia PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Collaborative Memory: Social Influences on Remembering  Collaborative memory: How people remember in groups  Remembering as a collaborative group leads to greater recall than any single member of the group would achieve alone, but less than that produced by a nominal Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved group of individuals remembering on their own.  Retrieval-induced forgetting  Collaborative inhibition  Social learning PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Real World: Is GPS Hurting Our Memories?  Is GPS hurting our memories? What do you think?  Reliance on GPS produced impaired memory for the route travelled during a virtual-navigation task (Gardony and colleagues).  Greater reliance on navigation and memory abilities can yield increased volume in key brain region that supports those abilities (Eleanor Maguire and colleagues/London taxi driver study).  People who rely on GPS are likely to remember less about their Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved Soho tour than those that did not rely on GPS (Javadi and colleagues).  More reliance on GPS can produce impairment of spatial memory abilities (Dahmani and Bohbot). PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Transience  Transience: Forgetting what occurs with passage of time; rapid forgetting  Memory fades more quickly at first, then more slowly over time.  Involves a switch from specific to more general memories Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Common types of forgetting  Retroactive interference  Proactive interference  Infantile or childhood amnesia PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Curve of Forgetting  Hermann Ebbinghaus measured his retention at various delay intervals after studying lists of nonsense syllables.  Retention was measured in percent savings, the percentage of time needed to relearn the list compared to the time needed to learn it initially. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Absentmindedness  Absentmindedness: Lapse in attention that results in memory failure  There is less activity in the left frontal lobe when attention is divided. How do external aids such  We don’t always remember to as Google affect impact remember. prospective memory? Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Prospective memory: Remembering to do things in the future  External reminders  Intention offloading PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Blocking  Blocking: Failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it  Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon  Increase with injury and age  Occurs especially often for names of people and Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved places PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Memory Misattribution  Memory misattribution: Assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source  Frontal lobe involved  Correct memories can be attributed to wrong source.  Source memory: Recall when, where, and how information was acquired  Misattribution happens to us all, but it can be influenced by Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved culture.  False recognition: Feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before  Culture plays important role in shaping how memories are constructed. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Misattribution  George Harrison made a memory misattribution when he thought that he had composed a melody that was actually created by someone else, and the mistake cost him nearly $9 million. Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  He still found reasons to smile, however. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Suggestibility  Suggestibility: Tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections  People can develop false memories in response to suggestions.  Visual imagery influence Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved  Social pressures  Accuracy or inaccuracy of childhood memories recalled during psychotherapy PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Bias  Bias: Distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences  Consistency bias: Tendency to reconstruct the past to fit the present  Fake news  Higher percentage of “no” supporters reported false memory for about the ’yes” side  Higher percentage of “yes” supporters reported false memory for about Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved the no” side  Egocentric bias: Tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition False Memories and Fake News Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Memory Failures: Persistence  Persistence: Intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget  Often occurs after disturbing or traumatic events  Emotional experiences better remembered than unemotional ones.  Flashbulb memories: Detailed recollections of Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved when and where we heard about shocking events  Amygdala involved in emotional memory PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition The Amygdala’s Influence on Memory  The amygdala, located next to the hippocampus, responds strongly to emotional events.  Individuals with amygdala damage cannot remember emotional Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved events any better than nonemotional ones (Cahill & McGaugh, 1998). PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Are the Seven Sins Vices or Virtues?  Each of the seven sins can cause trouble in our lives.  However, each has an adaptive side.  Sins should be viewed as the costs we pay Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved for the benefits of a memory that works well most of the time. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition Hot Science Memory Misattribution: When Accurate Inferences Produce Mistaken Recollection  Associative inference: Ability to combine information acquired in different episodes to make new connections that we have not experienced directly  Adaptive process that uses information stored in memory inflexible way  Making correct associative inferences can lead to memory Copyright © 2023 by Macmillan Learning. All rights reserved misattribution errors.  Successful associative inference led people to confuse elements of the scenes they had studied, resulting in the wrong pattern being reinstated on the scene memory test. PSYCHOLOGY Schacter | Gilbert | Nock | Johnsrude Canadian Sixth Edition