ARCH 233 Mesopotamia Chapter 2 PDF

ARCH 233 - History & Theory of Architecture 1 CHAPTER 2 Architecture In Mesopotamia PPREPARED BY MAYA KAMAREDDINE  CHAPTER OUTLINE TOPIC HIGHLIGHTS Architecture of Gods and Kings An overview of the architectural elements and...

ARCH 233 - History & Theory of Architecture 1 CHAPTER 2 Architecture In Mesopotamia PPREPARED BY MAYA KAMAREDDINE  CHAPTER OUTLINE TOPIC HIGHLIGHTS Architecture of Gods and Kings An overview of the architectural elements and meanings throughout: Sumerian Period Akkadian Period Babylon Period Hittites Period Assyrian Period Neo- Babylon Period Persian Period Gods and kings : the architecture of the ancient Middle East is the story of these two forces— one divine, one would be divine. This is largely because the everyday buildings of this period, in which people lived and worked, have long since vanished. What we are left with are the ruins, in various states of decay, of ambitious palaces and temples—the architecture of religion and power.  Mesopotamia: The Land Between the Rivers The two great civilizations that followed the dramatic agricultural changes of the Neolithic period both arose in the Middle East, in arid regions watered by great rivers : Egypt along the banks of the Nile; and the successive cultures of Mesopotamia in the broad valley watered by two parallel rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. It was the control of these river waters that made intensive agriculture possible in both regions and, with the resulting abundance of food, the rise of urban cultures and the art and architecture supported by them. The oldest writing seems to have been developed in Mesopotamia, perhaps around 3500 BCE. During the long history of Mesopotamia, hostile groups repeatedly invaded from the north and east, producing periodic dramatic political changes. Watch: Ancient Mesopotamia 101 | National Geographic https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVf 5kZA0HtQ https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/the- ancient-near-east-an-introduction/a/cuneiform?modal=1 PRE- HISTORY HISTORY development of written language Neo- Sumerian Akkadian Babylonian Hittite Assyrian Babylonian Persian 4000 to 2370 BCE 2370 to 2150 BCE 2000 to 1503 BCE 1503 to 1200 BCE 900 to 612 BCE 612 to 560 BCE 560 to 224 BCE GREEKempire The ancient world : Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt The Sumerian Period Around 4500 B.C., in the lower Mesopotamian valley near the Persian Gulf, a nomadic people called the Al Ubaid settled in the fertile valley , Sumerian culture first appeared, reaching its golden age in about 3300 B.C. during the Uruk period. They mastered the arts of agriculture, and developed systems of irrigation to use the flood waters of the Euphrates. The growing reliance on grain agriculture meant that, after harvest, the surplus of seeds had to be stored, encouraging the development of clay pottery vessels that resisted moisture and attack by insects and rodents. Even more important was the need for some permanent way of recording grain tallies and communal decisions. Cuneiform writing was developed, using a wedge-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay tablets. Literary writing followed later. The oldest cities in Sumer were, at the time of their establishment, The typical form of their settlements was the city - state , a near the mouths of the two great rivers. political and religious center devoted to serving gods based on natural elements. The Sumerian Period 1 The abundance of mud - brick builders to develop construction material led methods appropriate Sumerian to The Sumerians had neither timber nor stone. For their its physical properties. monumental construction only one material was available, but in unlimited quantities : MUD. 2 Structurally, such bricks stone. To compensate, are weak when compared the walls of Sumerian buildings to It was formed into bricks, dried in the sun, and built into massive walls were very thick (serving as thermal insulators as well) and employing earth mortar. Structurally the mud-bricks presented severe reinforced with the buttresses characteristic of temples limitations, and, historically their fate was disastrous: the material is highly throughout Mesopotamian history. soluble in water and this meant that most buildings disappeared.  The Sumerian Period Construction Challenges 1 Bricks could not be used as lintels to span the distance between walls, and as a result narrow oblong spaces were covered with tunnel vaults ; such constricted interiors (with doorways generally placed in the long side) became a primary unit of architecture in the region. 2 Mud presented carefully other problems : even in the form of shaped bricks it was not very attractive, nor was it resistant to weather. Methods were found to disguise and protect it, first by whitewashing and patterned coloring (later).  The Sumerian Period 1 Urban communities developed around religious the dwelling places of the gods and the storage for food shrines, surplus, and thus there were monu mental temple 1 The characteristic architecture of Sumer was one of heavy walls and great massing, as exemplified in its complexes at the heart of Sumerian cities. Hence, each of the oldest cities is dedicated to a particular god. characteristic monumental building type - the temple. 2 Ordinary dwellings the temple was situated. were clustered around courts where 3 Temples were built on artificial they would be raised above floods, platforms, perhaps so that but in time, these artificial mounds were enlarged, rising through several set - back stages forming what are called ziggurats. 4 The ziggurat , artificial hill, served as a way of elevating the temples to make a link between the human realm and the heavenly realm of the gods.  The White Temple showcases the characteristic layout of the Sumerian Temple : 1 Within an overall rectangular scheme, a central court was bordered by thick walls, and on the long sides were rooms WHITE TEMPLE oblong in shape and perhaps vaulted City of URUK (one of them containing a stair that led to a roof terrace). 2 In the courtyard were set an altar and an offering table. 3 The temple walls were thick patterned with repeated buttressing. and 4 The whole structure was set on a mud- brick platform, with stairs leading up to an entrance on the long side of the temple. 5 The walls are covered with a protective coat of whitewash over its sun- dried brick. Akkadian and Neo-Sumerian Period 1 The ziggurat construction expanded greatly during Neo- Sumerian period with a great deal of sophistication. the About 2350 BCE, a fierce warrior Sumerian settlements people overran the and created several new cities, 2 The ziggurats were commonly constructed brick bonded with bitumen, reed matting, of sun dried or rope. They particularly at Sippar and Akkad, which gives its name were finished with a weather - resistant exterior layer of to this period. kiln - fired brick. The Sumerian culture, including cuneiform writing and major aspects of religion, significant was absorbed, but the most change was toward a strong priestly class 3 From a rectangular base, the zig gurat rose with battered or inward - sloping walls in a series of stepped platforms, and rule by a single warrior - king. culminating in a high temple at the top. A flight of dramatic stairs set in the center of one side con nected the The Akkadians were in turn overthrown by the Guti , but temple to the ground. their military control weakened after about a century and the old political alliances between the various city - states reestablished themselves in what is called the neo - Sumerian period. ZIGGURAT OF URNAMMU City of UR  In contrast to the grand temple complexes, the houses of the ordinary RESIDENTIAL QUARTER population were set in densely packed neighborhoods. Plans were roughly orthogonal, and houses were constructed City of UR around open courtyards that provided light and fresh air to al I rooms. To the street, the houses presented a blank wall, thereby ensuring privacy. The Babylonian Period Dominance in the turbulent Mesopotamian region passed to the Amorite Dynasty in the city - state of Babylon from about 1800 to 1600 BCE. There, an exceptionally able king, Hammurabi (1728 - 1686 BCE), restored the Akka dian tradition of a central government leading diverse city states. Babylon developed as a major city, with a great temple to Marduk , who was considered the king of the gods. Hammurabi, is remembered for the detailed code of laws he had engraved in cuneiform on a stone stele. Watch : https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art- civilizations/ancient-near-east1/babylonian/v/stele-of-hammurabi Diorite stela inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi, 18 th century BCE.Art Media/Heritage - Images/age footstock https://www.britannica.com/topic/Code-of-Hammurabi The Hittites Period 1 The Hittites had excellent iron weapons that made their opponents’ bronze swords useless. They were able to fight About 1503 BCE, the militarily superior Hittites invaded the Egyptians. from Anatolia (western Turkey), establishing their capital Ankara, at Hattusas (now Bogazköy , near present - day Turkey). Armed through their technology of 2 At Hattusas , the Hittites built a large central palace including a library, archives, and a granary (grain smelting iron as early as the fourteenth century BCE, storage). the Hittites overran their surrounding neighbors, even successfully holding off Egyptian armies. 3 At Hattusas , all the buildings were made with stone. After bringing down the city - states of Mesopotamia, the Hittites ruled northern Mesopotamia and Syria from 4 The buildings had long, narrow rooms covered by corbeled stone vaults in which the successive courses of stone are their homeland capital, Hattusas. cantilevered slightly over the next lower course until they meet. Over time, the Hittites extended their empire, struggling with Egypt for control over Syria. Because of the distance from Hattusas , and as Hittite control gradually weakened, individual cities in the region around Babylon regained local autonomy.  1 At the height of the Hittite Empire (ca. 1400 - 1200 BCE), the rambling, asymmetrically built city of Hattusas covered some 300 acres enclosed in a four mile stone - based fortification wall. City of HATTUSAS 2 Upper wall sections sun - dried brick were made from that has since disappeared. Corbeled vaults were used for gates in the town wall, and two of these gates were flanked by sculptures of sphinxes or lions. 3 On a enclosure rocky outcrop was a separately within the fortified palace complex containing audience halls, a library, archives, and gra naries. 4 The stone construction its storage rooms made extensive use employed for of parabolic corbeled vaults to enclose long, narrow rooms. The Assyrian Empire In contrast to the agricultural and commercial south Mesopotamian culture, the Assyrians, who came from the high plateaus of the north, were great warriors and hunters. Their armies conquered and control vast portions of southwest Asia. Art produced by the Assyrians was characterized by strong, even violent images. It exaggerated the muscular appearance and showcased lion hunts and military campaigns. The Assyrians established a true empire with strongly fortified capitals built successively at various locations including Cala (today Nimrud), Dur - Sharrukin (today Khorsabad ), and then Nineveh (today Kuyunjik ). Their principal interests seem to have been trade and military conquest. The Assyrian Empire The city that most dramatically demonstrated the authority of Assyrian kings was Khorsabad , although never complete, it is there that the principal remains of Assyrian architecture are found. It was meant to be a royal capital, but only a part of his ambitious plan, which included palaces, temples, and administrative headquarters, was executed. Built in a flat open field, the city was closed with entrance gates planned for each side. The large barrel vault in one of the Khorsabad gates reveals the Mesopotamian use of vaulting which, however, was not often used because of the preference for flat, beam- supported mud roofs.  1 At the center of the city the twenty - five - acre palace occupied a plateau fifty feet above the level of the town. PALACE of SARGON City of Khorsabad 2 Orthogonal gov erned geometry buildings in the palace area, which was bordered by a sturdy wall heavily reinforced by watchtowers. 3 Rising near the central axis was a seven - stage ziggurat, 43 m square at the base, representing the cosmic order of the· seven planets. watch : https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKGqJgYtif 0  1 The palace was organized around large courtyards sur - rounded by rectangular rooms, including the great hall and throne room, while the approach sequence was cir - cuitous, perhaps to confuse visitors and to heighten the sense of grandeur. PALACE of SARGON City of Khorsabad 2 Winged bulls with human heads carved in high relief from thirteen - foot - tall stone blocks guard the entrances to the palace. Bone and muscle are realistically represented, while feathers, hair, and beard are stylized, forcefully conveying the strength of the monarch : as man, the lord of creation ; as eagle, king of the sky ; and as bull, fecundator of the herd. 3 Other relief carvings within the palace depict marching armies burning, killing, and pil laging to emphasize the folly of resisting Assyrian power. Without subtlety, Sargon II had the art and architecture of his palace communicate the overwhelming power residing in his person. Watch : https ://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient - art - civilizations/ancient - near - east 1 /assyrian/v/lamassu City of NINEVEH https ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineveh The Neo-Babylonian Period In 612 BCE, the strict rule of the detested Assyrians ended with the fall of Nineveh to the combined forces of Babylonians. Babylon was then magnificently rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II with distin guished architecture. In contrast to the roughness of the Assyrian the NeoBabylonian architecture was soft and elegant. Architecture was now embellished in lavish style with sumptuous ornaments and brilliantly enameled brick reliefs of sacred animals. Babylon is accessed through the Ishtar Gate , a fortified portal clad in blue - glazed bricks. Animals were modeled in shallow relief on the surface of the bricks, whi ch were glazed separately and then assembled as the covering was laid in horizontal courses. The gate's front face, recalls the colorful splendor of ancient Babylon. The Neo-Babylonian Period In 612 BCE, the strict rule of the detested Assyrians ended with the fall of Nineveh to the combined forces of Babylonians. Babylon was then magnificently rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II with distin guished architecture. In contrast to the roughness of the Assyrian the NeoBabylonian architecture was soft and elegant. Architecture was now embellished in lavish style with sumptuous ornaments and brilliantly enameled brick reliefs of sacred animals. Babylon is accessed through the Ishtar Gate, a fortified portal clad in blue - glazed bricks. Animals were modeled in elegant shallow relief on the surface of the bricks, which were glazed separately and then assembled as the covering was laid in horizontal courses. The gate's front face, recalls the colorful splendor of ancient Babylon. Watch https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient- near-east1/babylonian/v/ishtar-gate-and-processional-way-reconstruction-babylon-c- 575-b-c-e  1 Babylon was then magnificently rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II. At its center was an expansive temple complex sacred to Marduk , then the chief Babylonian god, and a soaring ziggurat of five levels, 91 m square at its base and rising 91 m, remembered in the Bible as, perhaps, the Tower of Babel. City of BABYLON 2 Another marvel was the elevated Terrace Gardens, the fabled “Hanging Gardens” described in antiquity as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Now lost, this marvel was apparently a ziggurat - like arched substructure supporting terraces heavily planted in trees. 3 Particularly notable were the massive walls enclosing the new Babylon, 11 miles (17.7 km) in circumference and wide enough at the top that a chariot drawn by four horses could pass a similar chariot coming from the opposite direction ; 4 The encircling wall was pierced by eight gates, dedicated to one of the principal deities. Best known today each is the Ishtar Gate. City of BABYLON watch : https ://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient - art - civilizations/ancient - near - east 1 /babylonian/v/visiting - babylon  City of BABYLON Tower of BABEL – Hanging Gardens Watch: https://youtu.be/iUotrPxq2pU The Persian Period 1 At Persepolis, there are echoes of Egyptian temple gates and hypostyle halls, Hittite audience chambers, and Babylon's greatness was eclipsed in 539 BCE when it Mesopotamian sculpted animal motifs. became part of the Persian. Empire of Cyrus II. The Persians continued to expand outward from their capital at Susa ‘(in present day Iran) to conquer all of 2 The great palace, used primarily for ceremonies at the New Year and the beginning of spring, contained reception Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and even Egypt by 525 BCE. courts, banquet rooms, and audience halls in a loosely organized orthogonal layout. The greatest surviving architectural contribu tion of the Persians is an impressive min at Persepolis, founded in 518 BCE by Darius as a ceremo nial capital to the city 3 King Xerxes's throne room was known as the Hall of a Hundred Columns, and this audience hall, was the largest supplement Susa, the administrative capital, and center endorsed space in the palace, able to contain 10 ,000 of court life. Lacking strong artistic traditions of their people within its 250 - foot square plan. own, the Persians bor rowed freely from the cultures they conquered. 4 Most of the construction supported wooden roof was in stone. Stone columns beams resting on the unique double - headed capi tals carved in the form of bulls and Watch : https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient- lions. near-east1/persian/v/bull-capital-susa?modal=1 PERSEPOLIS Palace PERSEPOLIS Palace PERSEPOLIS Palace CHAP TER REFERENCE Wh a t ’s n e x t ? & READI NGS All t he informat ion listed in t his cha pt er a long ACI ENT EGYP T wit h ima ges , unless listed differently , are based on the book: Roth, L.M. & Clark, A.C.R. 2014, Understanding architecture: its elements, history, and meaning, Third edn, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. Cha pter 1 0 Fazio, M., Moffett, M., & Wodehouse, L. (2009). A world history of architecture Cha pter 1 p 1 4 – 2 2 Glancey, J., (2006). Architecture: Eyewitness companions. P 4 5 - 51