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Topic - Learning 6.1 The behaviourist view in rela on to learning Chapter 1 discusses the con ict between structuralists and behaviourists in early psychology. The structuralists focused on studying mental events by asking individuals to describe their sensa ons and experiences. However, behaviouris...
Topic - Learning 6.1 The behaviourist view in rela on to learning Chapter 1 discusses the con ict between structuralists and behaviourists in early psychology. The structuralists focused on studying mental events by asking individuals to describe their sensa ons and experiences. However, behaviourists rejected this approach, arguing that statements about mental states provided no explanatory value. Behaviourism advocated for studying behaviour and its external circumstances without considering internal thoughts, emo ons, or ideas. Behaviorists believed that discussions of mental events were imprecise and preferred to focus on observable behavior. They argued that statements about mental experiences could be translated into descrip ons of behaviour. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviourist, suggested that statements like "I intend to..." could be be er understood as descrip ons of imminent or preliminary behaviour. The behaviorist perspec ve aligns with legal systems, which emphasise factual descrip ons of witnessed events rather than subjec ve interpreta ons. Witnesses are expected to report what they saw and heard, avoiding statements that require inferences about internal states. The behaviorist viewpoint may seem counterintui ve, as it rejects the no on that thoughts and beliefs cause behavior. Behaviorists argue that external events in the environment are the true causes of behavior, as thoughts are in uenced by these events. They challenge individuals to provide evidence suppor ng the claim that internal states independently cause behavior. Jacques Loeb, an early advocate of behaviorism, argued that animal behavior should be understood as a response to external s muli. He rejected the idea that animals act out of will or purpose, sugges ng that their movements are driven by external factors. Loeb applied this explana on to various behaviors, such as caterpillars moving toward light or animals approaching heat or cold. Behaviorists aim to explain behavior, including learning, through s mulus-response associa ons. They consider an individual's history of experiences and factors like wakefulness or sleepiness in understanding behavior. Behaviorists sought to establish basic laws of behavior, akin to the laws of physics, in a simple and parsimonious manner. However, the challenge remained to explain learning and complex vertebrate behavior without reference to internal processes or understanding. Pavlov And Classical Condi oning The major points in Bri sh English spelling are not directly related to the given text about Ivan Pavlov and behaviorism. However, if you would like a summary of the provided text about Pavlov's observa on and condi oned re ex, here it is: ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fl ti ti tt ti fl fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti Page 1 of 104 In the early 1900s, Ivan P. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist known for his research on diges on, made an important observa on that aligned with the rise of behaviorism. While studying diges on, Pavlov no ced that a dog would secrete diges ve juices upon seeing the lab worker who fed the dogs. This secre on was in uenced by the dog's previous experiences and was termed a "psychological" secre on. Pavlov collaborated with other specialists who found that teasing a dog with the sight of food consistently produced saliva on, similar to a re ex response. Pavlov referred to this phenomenon as a condi oned re ex since it depended on speci c condi ons or associa ons that the dog had learned. This observa on laid the founda on for Pavlov's groundbreaking work on classical condi oning, which explored the rela onship between s muli and learned responses. Pavlov’s Procedures - Pavlov proposed that animals have automa c connec ons called uncondi oned re exes between a s mulus (such as food) and a response (such as saliva ng). - He suggested that animals acquire new re exes by transferring a response from one s mulus to another, such as saliva ng to a sound that predicts food. - Classical condi oning, also known as Pavlovian condi oning, is the process by which an organism learns a new associa on between a neutral s mulus and a s mulus that already elicits a re exive response. - Pavlov conducted experiments using dogs and measured saliva on as a response. - The food was the uncondi oned s mulus (UCS) that automa cally elicited saliva on, which was the uncondi oned response (UCR). - Pavlov introduced a neutral s mulus, such as a metronome, and paired it with food repeatedly. Eventually, the metronome alone caused the dog to salivate, becoming the condi oned s mulus (CS), and the saliva on in response became the condi oned response (CR). - The condi oned response can di er from the uncondi oned response in some cases. - The uncondi oned s mulus (UCS), such as food, automa cally elicits the uncondi oned response (UCR), such as saliva ng. - A neutral s mulus, such as a sound, that is paired with an uncondi oned s mulus (UCS) becomes a condi oned s mulus (CS). ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fi fl ti ti ti fl ti ti ff fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fl Page 2 of 104 around. - Through repeated pairings of the condi oned s mulus with the UCS, the condi oned s mulus starts to elicit the condi oned response (CR), which typically resembles the uncondi oned response (UCR). - Condi oning tends to occur more rapidly when the condi oned s mulus is unfamiliar. - Familiarity with a s mulus can delay the process of condi oning. If a tone has been heard many mes without any signi cant event following it and then starts to be followed by a strong s mulus, the individual may take longer to show signs of condi oning. - The example of two people being bi en by a snake illustrates that the person who has never been near a snake before is likely to learn a greater fear in response to future encounters with snakes compared to someone who has spent years working with snakes at a zoo. Ex nc on - In a classical condi oning scenario where a buzzer is paired with a pu of air into the eyes, a person eventually learns to close their eyes in response to the buzzer alone. - If the buzzer is repeatedly presented without the pu of air, the condi oned response of blinking gradually decreases. This process is called ex nc on. - Ex nc on is di erent from forge ng, as it occurs due to the speci c experience of perceiving the condi oned s mulus without the uncondi oned s mulus. - Ex nc on involves learning to inhibit or suppress a previously acquired response. - In classical condi oning, ex nc on does not mean complete oblitera on of the condi oned response, but rather a temporary suppression. Similar to ex nguishing a re, some lingering e ects may remain and the response can poten ally be reac vated. Spontaneous recovery - In a classical condi oning experiment, if a buzzer (CS) is repeatedly paired with a pu of air to the eyes (UCS), a condi oned response is acquired. - When the buzzer no longer predicts the air pu , the condi oned response gradually ex nguishes. ti ti ti ff ti ti fi ff ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti tt tti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti Page 3 of 104 ff ti - Ini ally, the condi oned s mulus elicits no response or an irrelevant response, such as looking - A er a period of me without any s muli, if the buzzer is presented again, there is a tendency for a temporary return of the ex nguished response. This is called spontaneous recovery. - Spontaneous recovery occurs because the e ects of the ini al acquisi on and subsequent ex nc on are approximately equal a er a delay. - The return of the response during spontaneous recovery is temporary and typically weaker than the original condi oned response. S mulus generalisa on - If you learn to fear bees a er being stung by one, you are likely to also fear similar insects such as wasps or hornets, but not other insects like bu er ies. - The degree of similarity between the condi oned s mulus (bees) and a new s mulus (wasps or hornets) determines the likelihood of a similar response. - S mulus generalisa on refers to the extension of a condi oned response from the original training s mulus to similar s muli. - The concept of similarity can be subjec ve and context-dependent. For example, you may fear the sound of buzzing bees in a forest but not in a nature documentary, highligh ng the in uence of context in determining similarity. - The percep on of similarity can vary between individuals, as what may appear similar to one person may not be perceived as similar by someone else. Discrimina on - Discrimina on refers to the ability to respond di erently to s muli that predict di erent outcomes. - Learning to discriminate allows individuals to dis nguish between similar s muli and react accordingly. - Examples of discrimina on include reac ng di erently to the sound of a baby's ra le compared to the sound of a ra lesnake, or dis nguishing between a bell signaling class me and a bell signaling a re alarm. - Discrimina on training enhances sensi vity to sensory cues and improves the ability to detect di erences between s muli. ff fl tt ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fl ff ti ti tt ff ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ft ti ti ft ti ti tt ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ff ft ti ti Page 4 of 104 - In a study involving chemical sni ng, par cipants became be er at detec ng the di erence between two similar chemicals as they learned to associate one of them with an electrical shock, demonstra ng the e ect of discrimina on training on perceptual sensi vity. Drug tolerance as an example of classical condi oning - Classical condi oning can explain the phenomenon of drug tolerance. - Drug tolerance refers to the progressively weaker e ects experienced by users of certain drugs a er repeated use. - Drug tolerance is in uenced by both automa c chemical changes in the body and classical condi oning processes. - The drug injec on procedure, including the me, place, and needle injec on, serves as a complex s mulus that predicts the drug's entry into the brain. - When the drug reaches the brain, it triggers body defenses that counteract the e ects of the drug, including changes in hormone secre ons, heart rate, and breathing rate. - These body defenses are learned responses that have been condi oned through the associa on between the drug injec on procedure and the drug's e ects. First s mulus → Second s mulus → Automa c response (Injec on procedure) (Drug enters brain) (Body’s defenses) Whenever one s mulus predicts a second s mulus that produces an automa c response, classical condi oning can occur. The rst s mulus is the CS , the second is the UCS , and the response is the UCR. Let’s relabel as follows: Condi oned → Uncondi oned → Uncondi oned s mulus s mulus response (Injec on procedure) (Drug enters brain) (Body’s defenses) If condi oning occurs here, what would happen? Suppose the CS (drug injec on) produces a CR that resembles the UCR (the body’s defenses against the drug). In that case, as soon as the injec on starts, before the drug enters the body, the body starts mobilizing its defenses against the drug. Therefore, the drug has less e ect, and we say that the body developed tolerance. Shepard Siegel (1977, 1983) conducted several experiments that con rm classical condi oning during drug injec ons. Condi oned s mulus → Condi oned response (Injec on procedure) (Body’s defenses) ti ff ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tt ti fi ff ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ff ffi ti ff ti ti ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ft Page 5 of 104 - The research tested predic ons related to classical condi oning and drug tolerance. - The predic on was that the body's defense reac ons would be strongest when the drug is administered in the usual way, in the usual loca on, and with familiar s muli. - The evidence supports this predic on, as studies with both laboratory animals and humans have shown that drug e ects are weakened in familiar se ngs. - Another predic on was that tolerance, if classically condi oned, could be ex nguished by presen ng the condi oned s mulus (CS) without the uncondi oned s mulus (UCS). - Researchers conducted experiments with rats, measuring the pain response as an indicator of drug e ects. - They found that daily drug injec ons led to tolerance, but when they presented the rats with injec ons of salt water (CS without UCS), tolerance par ally ex nguished. - This experiment supports the idea that drug tolerance depends on classical condi oning. - Research on classical condi oning of drug tolerance has led to applica ons in addic on treatment, where presen ng drug-related s muli in controlled condi ons can lead to par al ex nc on of cravings. - These ndings have implica ons for helping individuals quit their addic ons by reducing the power of drug-related cues through ex nc on processes. Explana on of Classical Condi oning What is classical condi oning, really? As is o en the case, the process appeared simple at rst, but later inves ga on found it to be more complex and more interes ng. Pavlov noted that condi oning depended on the ming between CS and UCS. The major points can be summarised as follows: - Pavlov proposed that presen ng the condi oned s mulus (CS) and uncondi oned s mulus (UCS) close in me leads to the development of a connec on in the brain. - According to Pavlov's theory, this connec on causes the animal to treat the CS as if it were the UCS. - Before condi oning, there are separate brain centres for the UCS and the uncondi oned response (UCR). fi ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tti ti ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff fi ti ti ti ti Page 6 of 104 - During condi oning, connec ons develop between the representa ons of the CS and UCS in the brain. - A er condi oning, the CS excites the CS centre, which in turn excites the UCS centre and ul mately produces the UCR as a response. - This process illustrates the forma on of associa ons in the brain during classical condi oning. - - Later studies contradicted the idea that condi oning simply transfers the response from one s mulus to another. - Rats condi oned with a shock as the uncondi oned s mulus (UCS) froze in response to the condi oned s mulus (CS) paired with the shock, trea ng it as a danger signal rather than experiencing the shock itself. - In trace condi oning, where there is a delay between the CS and the UCS, the animal does not immediately make a condi oned response but instead waits un l closer to the end of the usual delay. - The CS and UCS must occur together more frequently than apart for e ec ve condi oning. Merely having the CS and UCS close together in me is not enough. - The CS needs to be a good predictor of the UCS for strong condi oning to occur. - The frequency and predictability of the CS-UCS pairing play important roles in the strength of condi oning. - In an experiment with rats, it was found that if a condi oned s mulus (CS) is paired with an uncondi oned s mulus (UCS) un l the rats consistently respond to the CS, adding another s mulus (such as a tone) along with the CS does not result in a condi oned response to the added s mulus. - The same pa ern occurs when the order is reversed, where the rats ini ally learn a response to the added s mulus (tone) and then receive combina ons of the CS and added s mulus before the UCS. In this case, the rats show a condi oned response to the added s mulus but not to the original CS. - This phenomenon is known as the blocking e ect, where the previously established associa on to one s mulus blocks the forma on of an associa on to the added s mulus. - - Two explana ons for the blocking e ect are supported by research: First, if the rst s mulus ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tt ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ft ti ti already predicts the outcome, the addi on of a second s mulus provides no new informa on. Page 7 of 104 Second, the animal or person pays stronger a en on to the s mulus that already predicts the outcome, thereby paying less a en on to the new s mulus. - The blocking e ect is also observed in human reasoning, where previous experiences strongly associated with one s mulus can prevent the forma on of an associa on with a new s mulus, even if the new s mulus predicts the same outcome. - The example of avoiding peppers due to allergic reac ons does not necessarily lead to a strong avoidance of nuts, even if the person has experienced allergic reac ons in associa on with both peppers and nuts. 6.2 Operant Condi oning Suppose a family in another country adopted you at birth. You then lived in a land with di erent language, customs, food, religion, and so forth. Undoubtedly you would be di erent in many ways. But would that alterna ve “you” have anything in common with the current “you”? Or does your culture and environment mould your behaviour completely? The most extreme statement of environmental determinism came from John B. Watson, one of the founders of behaviourism, who said: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own speci ed world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select— doctor, lawyer, ar st, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man thief regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abili es, voca ons, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary. The major point is that although Watson was never given the opportunity to demonstrate his ideas about controlling a child's environment, the ques on remains whether complete control of the environment would be able to shape a child's future. Due to ethical considera ons, it may be challenging to conduct such an experiment. However, researchers studying learning aim to understand how changes in the environment can lead to behavioural changes. Thorndike And Operant Condi oning - Edward L. Thorndike conducted experiments with cats in puzzle boxes to study learning through trial and error. - Cats learned to make speci c responses that opened the box, and their escape mes gradually improved over many trials. - Thorndike concluded that learning occurs because certain behaviors are strengthened through reinforcement, which increases the probability of the most recent response. ff ti ti ti ti ff ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ti tt ti ti ti tt ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ff Page 8 of 104 more rmly connected with the situa on and more likely to recur. - Thorndike's interpreta on of learning focused on behaviorist explana ons that did not rely on thoughts or understanding. - Operant condi oning, also known as instrumental condi oning, is the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcer a er a response. - Thorndike's research revolu onized the study of animal learning by emphasizing experimenta on and simple explana ons for complex behaviors. - The dis nc on between operant condi oning and classical condi oning lies in the subject's behavior and its e ect on the outcome. - Classical condi oning primarily applies to visceral responses, while operant condi oning applies to skeletal responses, but there can be overlaps in certain situa ons. Reinforcement and Punishment - Reinforcers can vary greatly between individuals, with some events being highly reinforcing for certain individuals but not for others (e.g., playing a video game for a high score). - The biological usefulness of a s mulus does not necessarily de ne its reinforcing value. For example, saccharin, a biologically useless chemical, can serve as a reinforcer. - The concept of equilibrium is useful in de ning reinforcement. If individuals could spend their me as they desired, they would allocate their me among various ac vi es. Anything that prevents engaging in an ac vity creates disequilibrium, and an opportunity to return to equilibrium is reinforcing. - The disequilibrium principle of reinforcement states that the preven on of an ac vity produces disequilibrium, and the opportunity to engage in that ac vity again serves as reinforcement. - The reinforcing value of ac vi es can vary, with more essen al ac vi es (e.g., breathing a er oxygen depriva on) being highly reinforcing compared to less essen al ac vi es (e.g., reading or telephone me a er depriva on). Primary and Secondary Reinforcers - Psychologists dis nguish between primary reinforcers, which are inherently reinforcing due to ft ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ft ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti their proper es (e.g., food and water), and secondary reinforcers, which become reinforcing through associa on with something else. Page 9 of 104 fi ti - The law of e ect states that responses accompanied or closely followed by sa sfac on will be through learned associa ons. For example, money becomes reinforcing because it can be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food or other desired items. - Secondary reinforcers can include social approval, praise, good grades, or increased produc vity, which are learned associa ons that bring about posi ve consequences. - Secondary reinforcers are not inherently unimportant; in fact, we spend a signi cant amount of me working for and seeking these learned reinforcers in our daily lives. Punishment - Punishment decreases the probability of a response, while reinforcement increases it. - Punishment can involve the presenta on of something aversive or the removal of something desired, similar to how reinforcement can involve the presenta on or removal of s muli. - The e ec veness of punishment depends on its speed and predictability. Quick and certain punishment is more e ec ve than delayed or uncertain punishment. - B.F. Skinner conducted a study on punishment using rats and found that punishment had temporary e ects but did not greatly weaken the response in the long run. - Alterna ves to punishment, such as providing feedback or using nonphysical methods of discipline, can be more e ec ve in in uencing behaviour. - The use of physical punishment, like spanking, is discouraged by many psychologists. Research shows correla ons between physical punishment and behavioural problems, but it is challenging to determine causality. - Comparisons between children who were frequently spanked and those subjected to nonphysical punishment show no signi cant di erences in outcomes. - Severe punishment bordering on child abuse can have nega ve consequences, including an social behaviour, low self-esteem, hos lity toward parents, and increased risk for health problems. Categories of reinforcement and punishment - Psychologists dis nguish between reinforcement and punishment. ti ti fi ti ti ti ff ti ti ti fi fl ti ti ti ti ff ff ti ti ff ti ti ff Page 10 of 104 ti ti - Secondary reinforcers, also known as condi oned reinforcers, acquire their reinforcing value - Reinforcement increases the probability of a behaviour, and it can be either posi ve (presen ng something desirable) or nega ve (avoiding something undesirable). - Nega ve reinforcement is o en referred to as escape learning or avoidance learning. - Punishment decreases the probability of a behaviour. - Punishment can be either posi ve (presen ng something aversive) or nega ve (omi ng something desirable). - Omi ng something as punishment is some mes called nega ve punishment. - To classify a procedure, if it increases behaviour, it is reinforcement. If it decreases behaviour, it is punishment. - Posi ve reinforcement involves the presence of something desirable, while nega ve reinforcement involves the absence of something undesirable and is also known as escape or avoidance learning. Addi onal Phenomena of Operant Condi oning Recall the concepts of ex nc on, generalisa on, and discrimina on in classical condi oning. The same concepts apply to operant condi oning, with di erent procedures. Ex nc on - The saying "If at rst you don't succeed, try, try again" suggests persistence in the face of failure. - In operant condi oning, ex nc on occurs when responses no longer result in reinforcements. - Examples of ex nc on include no longer asking a roommate to join for supper a er receiving repeated rejec ons, or stopping playing a video game that has become boring. - In classical condi oning, ex nc on is achieved by presen ng the condi oned s mulus (CS) without the uncondi oned s mulus (UCS). - In operant condi oning, ex nc on is achieved by allowing the response to occur without reinforcement. - Table 6.2 provides a comparison between classical and operant condi oning. Generalisa on ti ti tti ti ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tti ti ti ti Page 11 of 104 - Reinforcement for a response in the presence of one s mulus leads to the same response in the presence of a similar s mulus. - The similarity between a new s mulus and the original reinforced s mulus determines the likelihood of the same response. - This phenomenon is called s mulus generalisa on. - S mulus generaliza on can be observed in various species, where animals take advantage of predators' generalisa on abili es. - Predatory birds that learn to avoid a poisonous snake also avoid harmless lookalike snakes, and birds that avoid bad-tas ng bu er ies will also avoid other bu er ies with similar appearances. - An example of s mulus generalisa on is depicted in Figure 6.13. Discrimina on and discrimina ve s muli - Reinforcement for responding to one s mulus and not another leads to discrimina on between them, resul ng in a response to one s mulus and not the other. - Discrimina on can be observed in various situa ons, such as recognising the di erence between people or dis nguishing between edible and poisonous mushrooms. - A s mulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate is called a discrimina ve s mulus. - Much of our behaviour is in uenced by discrimina ve s muli, which signal the appropriate behaviours that will lead to reinforcement, punishment, or neither. - The ability of a s mulus to in uence and guide speci c responses is known as s mulus control. B.F. Skinner and the shaping of responses - B.F. Skinner was a prominent behaviorist known for his research in operant condi oning and his focus on reinforcement histories rather than mental processes. - De ning a response in behavior research can be challenging, as di erent observers may have di erent interpreta ons. Skinner addressed this issue by simplifying the measurement process using an operant-condi oning chamber, also known as a Skinner box. ti ti ff ti ti fl ff tt ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ti ti fl ti ti tt ti ti fl ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ff ti Page 12 of 104 - In the Skinner box, animals like rats or pigeons perform speci c ac ons (such as pressing a lever or pecking a key) to receive food as a reinforcer. - Skinner opera onally de ned a response as any ac on performed by the animal to depress the lever or key, regardless of the speci c muscle movements involved. - The behavior was de ned by its outcome (the e ect on the lever or key), emphasizing the importance of consistent results. - According to Skinner, the best de ni on of a behavior is the one that produces clear and consistent results, even if it di ers from tradi onal interpreta ons based on muscle movements. Shaping Behaviour - Thorndike and Skinner used di erent techniques to train animals to perform speci c behaviors. Thorndike used puzzle boxes, while Skinner used operant condi oning chambers (Skinner boxes). - Skinner's goal was to train rats to press levers and pigeons to peck keys, behaviors that are not part of their natural repertoire. - Skinner developed a technique called shaping to establish a new response by reinforcing successive approxima ons to the desired behavior. - Shaping involves reinforcing behaviors that are similar to the target behavior and gradually shaping them towards the desired response. - For example, to shape a rat to press a lever, Skinner would start by reinforcing the rat for standing up. Once the rat stands up more frequently, the reinforcement is given only when the rat stands up while facing the lever. This process con nues with each successive approxima on un l the rat is shaped to press the lever. - Shaping can also be applied to humans, such as in educa on. Ini ally, parents or teachers may praise a child for coun ng their ngers, and then gradually increase the complexity of tasks, reinforcing more advanced mathema cal skills through step-by-step progression. Chaining behaviour - Psychologists use a procedure called chaining to train animals or humans to perform a sequence of ac ons. ti fi ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ff ti ti ti fi fi fi ff ff fi ti ti fi ti ti ti Page 13 of 104 engage in the next behavior. - Animals, such as show horses or rats, can be trained using chaining techniques. - For example, a show horse is trained to perform a sequence of behaviors by star ng with the nal behavior and then gradually teaching each preceding behavior, reinforcing them with the opportunity to engage in the next behavior. - Similarly, a rat can be trained to perform a chain of behaviors, such as climbing a ladder and pulling a string to reach a reward. - Humans also learn chains of responses, such as ea ng with utensils, preparing a meal, and planning a menu. - Skinner demonstrated the e ec veness of shaping and chaining by training a rat to perform a complex sequence of behaviors, including wai ng for speci c music, going to the centre of a cage, si ng up on its hind legs, pulling a string to hoist a ag, and salu ng. - Chaining can lead to the development of complex behaviors that are not part of an organism's usual repertoire. Schedules of Reinforcement - Con nuous reinforcement is the simplest procedure in operant condi oning where every correct response is reinforced. - However, con nuous reinforcement is not common in the real world. - Intermi ent reinforcement or par al reinforcement occurs when reinforcement is provided for some responses but not for others. - Learning under intermi ent reinforcement leads to di erent behaviors compared to con nuous reinforcement. - Psychologists have studied various schedules of reinforcement that determine the rules for delivering reinforcement. - There are four main schedules of intermi ent reinforcement: xed ra o, xed interval, variable ra o, and variable interval. - In a ra o schedule, reinforcement is provided based on the number of responses. ti ti fi ti ti ti fi fi fl ff ti ti tt ti ti ff tt ti tti tt ti ti Page 14 of 104 ti fi - Chaining involves reinforcing each behavior in the sequence by providing the opportunity to Fixed-ra o schedule - A xed-ra o schedule provides reinforcement a er a speci c number of correct responses, such as every sixth response. - Examples of xed-ra o schedules include workers being paid for every ten pieces they produce or fruit pickers being paid by the bushel. - A xed-ra o schedule with a small number of required responses (e.g., two or three) leads to a steady rate of response. - However, if the xed-ra o schedule requires a larger number of responses, it typically results in a pause in responding a er each reinforcement, followed by a resump on of steady responding. - Researchers use cumula ve records to graph the results of xed-ra o schedules, where the line is at during non-response periods and moves up with each response. - In a xed-ra o schedule, the number of responses per reinforcement remains constant, but the me between reinforcements can vary. - On average, longer pauses occur in schedules that require a greater number of responses. For example, comple ng 10 math problems may result in a brief pause, while comple ng 100 problems may lead to a longer pause. Variable-ra o schedule - A variable-ra o schedule provides reinforcement a er a variable number of correct responses, unlike the xed-ra o schedule which has a xed number. - Reinforcement in a variable-ra o schedule can occur a er one, two, ve, ten, or any other variable number of responses. - Variable-ra o schedules result in steady response rates, meaning individuals con nue to respond consistently. - Variable-ra o schedules resemble real-life situa ons where the probability of success is uncertain and each response has a nearly equal chance of being reinforced. - Examples of variable-ra o schedules include job applica ons, where the more applica ons ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti fi fi ti ft ft ft ti fi ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti fi fi ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti tt fi fi fi submi ed, the higher the chances of being hired, but the exact number of applica ons needed for success is unpredictable. Page 15 of 104 fl ti - In an interval schedule, reinforcement is provided based on the ming of responses. - Gambling is another example of a variable-ra o schedule, where each me you par cipate, you have a chance of winning, but the number of mes required to win cannot be predicted. Fixed -Interval Schedule - A xed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for the rst response a er a speci c me interval. - An example is an animal receiving food for its rst response a er a 15-second interval and then having to wait another 15 seconds before another response is e ec ve. - Animals and humans on a xed-interval schedule learn to pause a er reinforcement and start responding again towards the end of the me interval. - As the me for the next reinforcement approaches, the rate of responding accelerates. - The cumula ve record for a xed-interval schedule shows a constant delay between reinforcements but a variable number of responses. - Checking your mailbox is an example of behaviour on a xed-interval schedule, where you start checking around a speci c me (e.g., 2:30 p.m.) and con nue checking every few minutes un l your mail arrives. - Showing up on me for class is another example of behaviour on a xed-interval schedule, where reinforcement (e.g., not missing important informa on) occurs a er a xed me interval (e.g., a ending class at the designated start me). Variable - interval schedule - In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is available a er a variable amount of me. - Examples include reinforcement for the rst response a er 2 minutes, then a er 7 seconds, then a er 3 minutes 20 seconds, and so on. - The me interval between reinforcements is unpredictable, and you cannot know when your next response will be reinforced. - Responses on a variable-interval schedule tend to be slow but steady. - Checking your email or Facebook account is an example of behaviour on a variable-interval schedule because new messages or updates can appear at any me, so you check occasionally. ti ti ti ti fi ti fi ft ft ft ti ti fi ft ff ti ft ft ti fi ti fi ft ti fi ti ti ti fi fi fi ti fi ti ti ti tt ft ti fi Page 16 of 104 - Stargazing and bird-watching are also reinforced on a variable-interval schedule because the opportunity to see something unusual occurs at unpredictable intervals. Ex nc on of responses reinforced on di erent schedules - When faced with unreliable behavior, we tend to lose pa ence more quickly with individuals who were previously reliable (such as Beth) compared to those who were unreliable (such as Becky). - This can be explained by the no ceable change in behavior. When an unreliable person con nues to behave inconsistently, it is not surprising. However, when a reliable person starts behaving similarly, it stands out more. - In a gambling scenario, if both you and your friend experience a winning streak followed by a losing streak, your friend is more likely to con nue be ng. - This is because responses ex nguish more slowly a er intermi ent reinforcement (either a ra o or interval schedule) compared to con nuous reinforcement. - Individuals who have received intermi ent reinforcement become accustomed to playing without winning and are more likely to persist in their behavior. Applica ons of operant condi oning - Shaping can be used to persuade someone to do something objec onable, even in extreme cases such as a captor convincing a prisoner of war to cooperate. - During the Korean War, Chinese captors applied the principle of shaping to in uence American prisoners of war. They intercepted some le ers and allowed others to be sent home. The prisoners realized that by including mild compliments about their captors in their le ers, they were more likely to have them forwarded. - The Chinese captors ini ated essay contests, o ering extra food or privileges to the prisoners who wrote essays favorably portraying the Communists or cri cizing the United States. Gradually, more prisoners began including such statements. - Through a gradual process and without the use of torture, the Chinese captors were able to manipulate the prisoners to denounce the United States, make false confessions, inform on fellow prisoners, and reveal military secrets. - The example demonstrates that star ng with easy behaviours, reinforcing them, and gradually shaping more complex behaviours can be an e ec ve technique for training and in uencing ti tt fl fl ti tt ti ti tti ft ti ff ff ti tt ff tt ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti Page 17 of 104 individuals, whether it is ge ng rats to salute the ag or persuading soldiers to denounce their own country. Applied behaviour analysis / behaviour modi ca on - Psychologists have u lized operant condi oning in applied behavior analysis or behavior modi ca on to in uence and shape people's behavior. - In a program implemented by school psychologists, children with a en on-de cit disorder were encouraged to complete more school assignments. They received verbal praise, points for each completed assignment, and addi onal points for accuracy. Rule viola ons resulted in point deduc ons. At the end of each week, those who accumulated enough points were rewarded with a party or eld trip. This approach resulted in increased assignment comple on and improved in-class behavior. - In cases where individuals with a painful injury receive sympathy and excuses for not working hard, this reinforcement can lead to maladap ve behavior. To address this, families and friends can provide praise and reinforcement for increased mobility a empts while withholding sympathy for complaints of pain a er the injury has healed. However, it is essen al to di eren ate between genuine pain and exaggerated pain when implemen ng this approach. Condi oned taste Aversion: - Learning is most e ec ve when a condi oned s mulus (CS), such as a sound, precedes an uncondi oned s mulus (UCS), such as food, by about half a second. - In the case of reinforcement, learning is fastest when the reinforcement occurs within a second or two a er the response. - Early research suggested that learning only occurs between events that are close in me. - However, the generaliza on fails in certain situa ons, such as condi oned taste aversion. - Condi oned taste aversion refers to associa ng a food with illness and developing an aversion to that food, even with a substan al delay between ea ng and feeling sick. - Research by John Garcia and his colleagues demonstrated that animals can develop aversions to a preferred food a er a single pairing with illness, even with a long delay between them. - Condi oned taste aversion is strong and reliable, and it occurs regardless of whether the illness was directly caused by the food or by other factors. ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti tt tt ti fl ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti ft ti ti tti ti ti ti fl ff ft ti fi ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ff Page 18 of 104 - Learning taste aversions is in uenced by factors such as previous experience with the food and the ming of the illness. - The associa on of illness is speci c to the food and not with other types of events. Predisposi on in learning - The food we eat in nature predicts feelings of fullness, hunger, health, or sickness, but not pain on the skin. Visual or auditory cues may predict pain, but not nausea. - The hypothesis tested was that rats would learn to avoid visual or auditory signals associated with foot shock and avoid foods they recently ate a er experiencing nausea. - Water-deprived rats were o ered saccharin- avored water with simultaneous exposure to taste, light, and noise. Half of the rats received foot shock, while the other half received X-rays to induce nausea. - Rats that received foot shock avoided the tube connected to lights and sounds but drank normally from the saccharin water. Rats that experienced nausea avoided the saccharin water but drank normally from the tube connected to lights and sounds. - Animals have predisposi ons to learn certain connec ons more readily than others, demonstra ng the concept of preparedness. - Condi oned taste aversions have prac cal applica ons, such as teaching coyotes to avoid sheep by providing them with sheep meat laced with nausea-inducing chemicals. - Trea ng alcoholism by administering a drug that causes nausea a er alcohol consump on has shown e ec veness. - Pregnant women o en experience food aversions and nausea, leading to aversions to speci c foods. - Cancer pa ents undergoing chemotherapy or radia on therapy may develop aversions to foods they ate prior to treatment, but targeted aversion training can be used to minimize aversions. Birdsong Learning The major points are as follows: fi ti ft ti ti ti ft ti fl ti ti fi fl ff ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti tt - Birdsongs serve as a means of communica on during the ma ng season, primarily for male birds to a ract females and deter other males. Page 19 of 104 - Song learning in birds occurs during a sensi ve period early in their rst year of life, similar to how human children learn language most easily when young. - Song learning is di erent from classical and operant condi oning. During the sensi ve period, the bird only listens and does not respond or receive reinforcement, yet learning occurs. - Ini ally, a young bird's song is a mixture of sounds, but over me, through trial and error, the bird eliminates and rearranges sounds to match the songs it heard the previous year. - Birds adjust their songs in response to compe ng noises, such as those found in suburban neighborhoods. They sing more frequently and shi some singing to quieter nigh me hours. They also modify the pitch of their songs to overcome masking by low-pitched sounds. - Individual birds learn to adapt their calls based on noise levels, indica ng learning rather than gene c changes. - The principles of learning in birds vary depending on their environmental circumstances and their way of life. Social Learning - Humans, like many birds, learn from each other rather than relying solely on trial and error. - Humans observe and imitate others' behaviors in various domains such as fashion, cooking, and dancing. - According to the social-learning approach, we learn by observing and modeling the behaviors of others. - When learning a new skill, such as driving a car, we start by observing skilled individuals and then receive reinforcement and punishment based on our own performance. - Social learning is a form of operant condi oning, but it is typically faster and more e cient than learning independently from scratch. Modelling And Imita on - When encountering customs and behaviors di erent from our own in another country, we learn and adapt by observing and imita ng others. - Imita on plays a role in social dynamics, as popularity and a en on in uence our behavior and interests. ffi ti tti fl fi ti ti ti tt ti ft ti ff ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti Page 20 of 104 - People imitate others' behavior because it provides informa on and establishes social norms or rules. - Automa c imita on occurs without conscious inten on, such as when yawning or mimicking facial expressions and gestures. - Studies have shown that imita on is in uen al in learning aggressive behavior, as children imitate and replicate the aggressive ac ons they have observed in others. Vicarious reinforcement and punishment - When deciding whether to pursue a new business venture, such as opening a restaurant, people o en imitate the behavior and success of others, especially those they like and nd reinforcing. - Vicarious reinforcement, where one learns from the posi ve experiences of others, in uences decision-making and behavior. Watching someone else's success can increase mo va on and belief in achieving similar outcomes. - Businesses, sports teams, and poli cians o en imitate successful models or strategies employed by others in order to achieve similar results. - Adver sers u lize vicarious reinforcement by portraying happy and successful individuals using their products, implying that using the product will lead to similar posi ve outcomes. - Vicarious punishment, where one learns from the nega ve experiences of others, is generally less e ec ve. People tend to have di culty iden fying with those who failed or received punishment. - Studies have shown that stories of truthfulness and honesty (vicarious reinforcement) are more e ec ve in promo ng honest behavior than stories of punishment for lying (vicarious punishment). Self-e cacy in social learning - Imita ng someone else's behavior is in uenced by self-e cacy, which is the belief in one's ability to successfully perform a task. People consider their own strengths and weaknesses, compare themselves to successful individuals, and es mate their chances of success before deciding to imitate. fl ti ti fi ti ti ti ffi ti ti ti ti ti ft fl fl ti ffi ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ffi ti ft ff Page 21 of 104 - Children's aspira ons in life are o en in uenced by their sense of self-e cacy. While many may desire high-paying and high-pres ge professions, some may believe they are incapable of reaching such levels and therefore don't a empt to pursue those aspira ons. - Having women and minori es in visible leadership posi ons can serve as role models and increase the aspira ons of others. Studies have shown that when women were guaranteed leadership roles in certain villages in India, young girls from those villages expressed higher aspira ons for their own accomplishments compared to girls from other villages. - Providing diverse role models can inspire individuals to believe in their own poten al and strive for success. Self-reinforcement and self punishment If your sense of self-e cacy is strong enough, you try to imitate the behavior of a successful person. But actually succeeding may require prolonged e orts. People typically set a goal for themselves and monitor their progress toward that goal. Some mes people reinforce or punish themselves, just as if they were training someone else. They say, “If I nish this math assignment on me, I’ll treat myself to a movie and a new magazine. If I don’t nish on me, I’ll make myself clean the sink and the toilets.” (Nice threat, but people usually forgive themselves without imposing the punishment.) Some therapists teach clients to use self-reinforcement. One 10-year-old boy had a habit of bi ng his ngernails, some mes down to the skin and even drawing blood. He learned to keep records of how much nail bi ng he did at various mes of day, and then he set goals for himself. If he met the goals of reducing his nail bi ng, he wrote compliments such as “I’m great! I did wonderful!” The penalty for doing worse was that he would return his weekly allowance to his parents. An addi onal reinforcement was that his father promised that if the son made enough progress, he would let the son be the “therapist” to help the father quit smoking. Over several weeks, the boy quit nail bi ng altogether (Ronen & Rosenbaum, 2001). One amusing anecdote shows the limits of self-reinforcement and self-punishment: To try to quit smoking cigare es, psychologist Ron Ash (1986) vowed to smoke only while he was reading Psychological Bulle n and other highly respected but tedious journals. He hoped to associate smoking with boredom. Two months later, he was smoking as much as ever, but he was star ng to enjoy reading Psychological Bulle n! ti ti ti ti ffi ti ti ti ti ff ti fi ti tt fl ti ft ti ti ffi ti ti ti ti ti tt ti fi fi ti ti Page 22 of 104 Topic - Memory Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies Of Memory The author wanted to study memory, but no previous research on memory existed. Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, developed an approach to study memory. Ebbinghaus taught new material and measured memory a er various delays to understand the learning process. He used lists of nonsense syllables to ensure the material was new and random. Ebbinghaus conducted the tests on himself since he had no par cipants. He spent six years memorizing thousands of lists of nonsense syllables. Ebbinghaus's ndings included the observa on that longer lists took longer to memorize. His measurements of learning me allowed for comparisons between di erent condi ons and types of lists. Ebbinghaus's approach laid the founda on for later research on memory. Methods of tes ng memory Tip-of-the-tongue experiences, where a person struggles to remember a word or name, are common occurrences. During a p-of-the-tongue experience, individuals may recall various details about the word or name, such as the rst le er, syllables, or related associa ons. Memory is not a binary state but exists on a con nuum; the ability to remember something can vary depending on the tes ng method used. The text introduces the main methods of tes ng memory and suggests that di erent types of memory will be discussed further. Free Recall ti ff ff ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti ti tt fi ti fi ti Free recall is a simple method used by researchers to assess memory. Page 23 of 104 Free recall involves asking individuals to produce a response from memory, such as providing a summary or answering an open-ended ques on. When asked to recall something freely, most people tend to provide a brief synopsis of the informa on. Free recall o en underes mates the actual amount of informa on a person knows. Di culty in recalling speci c details, such as naming all the children in a second-grade class, does not necessarily indicate complete forge ng but rather re ects the limita ons of free recall. Cued Recall Cued recall is a method that improves accuracy in remembering informa on by providing signi cant hints or cues about the material. Examples of cues can include a photograph, a list of ini als, or any other relevant hints related to the informa on being recalled. The text suggests an exercise of iden fying authors of books using cued recall. Ini ally, the exercise is performed without any cues, and then the right side of the table, revealing the authors' ini als, is uncovered to aid in recall. The improvement in performance when using cues demonstrates the e ec veness of cued recall in enhancing memory retrieval. Recogni on Recogni on is a method used to test memory, where individuals select the correct item from a set of op ons. Recogni on typically results in higher accuracy than recall, as people o en recognize more items than they can recall from memory. An example is given of being presented with a list of 60 names and being asked to iden fy the correct names of children from one's second-grade class. Mul ple-choice tests u lize the recogni on method by providing op ons for individuals to choose the correct answer from. ti ti ti ti ff ft ti ti fl ti ti ti tti ti fi ti ti ti ft ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ti ffi Page 24 of 104 Recogni on-based tests leverage the ability to iden fy informa on among a set of op ons, which can be an e ec ve way of assessing memory. Savings The savings method, also known as the relearning method, is a fourth method used to assess memory. The savings method detects weak memories by comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning. Even if a person cannot recall or recognize speci c informa on, such as the names of children in their second-grade class, they would s ll relearn the correct list faster compared to learning a new list of names. The me saved in relearning (original learning me minus relearning me) is considered a measure of memory. The savings method provides insights into the e ciency and e ec veness of memory retrieval by assessing the speed of relearning compared to ini al learning. Implicit Memory Free recall, cued recall, recogni on, and savings are tests used to assess explicit or direct memory, where individuals consciously state or recognize informa on as a product of memory. Implicit memory, on the other hand, refers to memory in uences on behavior or speech without conscious awareness of the memory's in uence. Implicit memory is di cult to de ne precisely, and the concept of "awareness" is not a sa sfactory criterion for de ning it. Examples are given to illustrate implicit memory, such as uninten onally incorpora ng words from a background conversa on into one's own conversa on without no cing the in uence. Implicit memory is characterized by its subtle and unno ced e ects on behavior or speech. The text acknowledges that the de ni on of implicit memory is tenta ve and suggests the need for further development of a be er de ni on. ti ti ti ti ti fl ti ti tt ti ti ti ti ff ff ti fl ti ti ti ti fi ti ffi ti ti ti fl ti ti fi fi fi ti tt tt ti ti ti ffi ti fi ff fi ti ti The text concludes by presen ng a demonstra on involving three-le er combina ons and invi ng readers to ll in addi onal le ers to form English words, which serves as an example of implicit memory. Page 25 of 104 Procedural memories and probabilis c learning Procedural memories refer to memories of how to do something, such as walking or using chops cks, and are a type of implicit memory. Psychologists dis nguish procedural memories from declara ve memories, which are memories that can be readily stated in words. Procedural memory is characterized by knowing how to perform a task or skill without necessarily being able to explicitly state that knowledge. Procedural memory is di erent from declara ve memory in terms of the brain areas involved and the way they develop. Procedural memory depends on di erent brain areas than declara ve memory, and damage to speci c brain areas can impair one type of memory without a ec ng the other. Procedural memory develops gradually through prac ce, while declara ve memory can be formed all at once. Procedural memory is well suited for learning habitual ac ons or recognizing pa erns that are usually true or true only under speci c circumstances. People can learn to pick up on various cues implicitly, without realizing that they are doing so, which contributes to the development of procedural memory. Applica on: suspect lineups as recogni on memory The task of iden fying the guilty person in a crime inves ga on involves recogni on memory, where individuals a empt to iden fy the correct item (the guilty person) among distracters (other suspects or photos). The process of recogni on memory is similar to taking a mul ple-choice test, where individuals select the best available op on even if none of the choices seems exactly right. In the context of eyewitness tes mony, selec ng a suspect based on visual resemblance may not be su cient, as certainty is required for the tes mony to hold value in court. ti tt ti ti ti ti ti ti ff ti ti ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ff ti fi ti fi ti ff ti tt ti ti ti ti fi ffi Feedback from the police, con rming the chosen suspect as the one they suspected, can strengthen an individual's con dence in their choice. Page 26 of 104 Eyewitness tes monies have led to wrongful convic ons, as subsequent DNA evidence has exonerated many individuals who were ini ally iden ed as guilty based on eyewitness accounts. The text raises the ques on of whether jus ce is truly served in cases where eyewitness tes mony alone leads to convic ons, considering the poten al for inaccuracies and the possibility of wrongful iden ca on. Children As Eyewitness The accuracy of young children's reports as witnesses or vic ms of a crime is a topic of concern. Researchers measure the accuracy of young children's memory by asking them to recall known events, such as medical or dental examina ons. Children as young as 3 years old can provide reasonably accurate reports of events even a er a sixweek delay. Several factors in uence the accuracy of young children's reports, including the delay of ques oning, repea ng the ques on, the type of ques on asked, in uence from other children's reports, the use of physical representa ons (dolls), and the child's understanding of the ques on. Delayed ques oning may lead to more detailed but less accurate reports in young children. Young children may change their answers when the same ques on is repeated shortly a er or by someone else. Sugges ve ques ons, par cularly a er a delay, can a ect the accuracy of young children's reports. Young children may be in uenced by hearing other children's reports and may provide similar but incorrect informa on. The use of anatomically detailed dolls may result in children ac ng out fantasies instead of memories, while drawings can enhance the accuracy and detail of their descrip ons. It is important for ques oners to ensure that young children understand the ques ons being asked to provide accurate responses. Adults tend to overes mate children's understanding, and misunderstandings can lead to inaccurate responses. ti ti ft ft ti ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti fi ti ff ti ti ti ti ft ti ti fl ti ti ti ti ti ti fl ti ti ti fi ti ti ti ti Page 27 of 104 The accuracy of a child's tes mony depends on proper ques oning techniques, understanding of ques ons, and avoiding biases or sugges ve in uences. The Informa on-Processing View of Memory Psychologists have historically used analogies to explain behavior by comparing it to the technologies of their me. Di erent analogies have been used throughout history, such as comparing animal behavior to a hydraulic pump in the 1600s and learning to a telephone switchboard in the early 1900s. In the early days of radio, researchers compared the nervous system to a radio. The current informa on-processing model compares human memory to that of a computer. According to the informa on-processing model, informa on enters the system and undergoes processing, coding, and storage. The model suggests that informa on ini ally enters short-term memory, which acts as a temporary store. Some informa on from sh
