Chapter 2 Learning - Psychology PDF

Chapter 2 Learning  What is Learning and Conditioning? Learning:  A process that produces a relativity enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience. Conditioning:  A process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral r...

Chapter 2 Learning  What is Learning and Conditioning? Learning:  A process that produces a relativity enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience. Conditioning:  A process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. What are the Basic Types of Learning? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning  Principles of Classical Conditioning  Classical Conditioning: The basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response- producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response; also called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning.  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.  Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.  Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response.  Conditioned Response (CR): The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus. Process Of Classical Conditioning  Factors That Affect Conditioning 1. Stimulus Generalization 2. Stimulus Discrimination 3. Extinction 4. Spontaneous Recovery  Factors That Affect Conditioning Stimulus Generalization: The occurrence of a learned response ,not only to the original stimulus, but to other, similar stimuli as well. Example, A bell rings at a certain tone and a dog salivates, if the bell rang at a higher or lower tone, the dog may still salivate. Stimulus Discrimination: The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli. Example, Pavlov repeatedly gave a dog some food following a high-pitched tone but did not give the dog any food following a low-pitched tone. The dog learned to distinguish between the two tones, salivating to the high- pitched tone but not to the low-pitched tone. Extinction (in classical conditioning): The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example: if the conditioned stimulus (ringing the bell) was repeatedly presented without being paired with unconditioned stimulus (food), the conditioned response seemed to gradually disappear. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.  From Pavlov to Watson The Founding of Behaviorism Behaviorism was founded by John Watson, who redefined psychology as the scientific study of behavior. Watson found behaviorism in the early 1900s, emphasizing the scientific study of observable behaviors rather than the study of subjective mental process. His influence spread many books and articles for the general public on child rearing and other topics, popularizing the finding of the “new” science of psychology (Rilling, 2000). Behaviorism is defined as a school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasis the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning.  Conditioned Emotional Reactions The Famous Case of Little Albert  Watson believed that, much as Pavlov’s dogs reflexively salivated to food, human emotions could be thought of as reflexive responses involving the muscles and glands. In studies with infants, Watson (1919) identified three emotions that he believed represented inborn and natural unconditioned reflexes—fear, rage, and love.  Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning Contemporary learning researches acknowledge the importance of both mental factors and evolutionary influences in classical conditioning. According to the behaviorists, mental process such as thinking, anticipating, or deciding were not needed to explain the conditioning process.  Operant Conditioning Associating Behaviors and Consequences Operant conditioning deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences. Thorndike and the law of effect Learning process proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and more likely to recur in particular situation. While responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation.  Reinforcement Increasing Future Behavior In a nutshell, Skinner’s operant conditioning explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by it’s consequences. One possible consequence of a behavior is reinforcement. Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated. Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: A situation in which response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. Negative Reinforcement: A situation in which a response results in the removal, avoidance, or escape from an aversive stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. Primary and Conditioned Reinforces Skinner also distinguished two kinds of reinforcement stimuli: Primary Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities. Conditioned Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer, also called secondary reinforcer. Fro example: grades, awards  Punishment: The presentation of a stimulus or event following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood of the behavior’s being repeated.  Punishment by application: A situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus; also called positive punishment.  Applications of Operant Conditioning The principles of operant conditioning have been used in the training of animals to help people who are physically challenged. Observational Learning Much of human learning occurs indirectly, by watching what others do, then imitating it. Therefore, to learn through observation we learn through watching and imitating the behaviors of others. Albert Bandura Bandura contends that most human behavior is acquired through observational learning rather than through trial and error or direct experience of the consequences of our actions. Watching and processing information about the actions of others, including the consequences that occur, influence the likelihood that behavior will be imitated. Thank You