History of English PDF

1 THE SUBJECT OF HISTORY OF ENGLISH. IT’S AIMS AND TASKS. SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC ASPECTS. Rastorgueva T.A. History of English p 10 (Параграф 1, абзац 1-2) THE SUBJECT OF HISTORY OF ENGLISH IT’S AIMS AND TASKS. (P 10-12) AIMS 1) to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history suffi...

1 THE SUBJECT OF HISTORY OF ENGLISH. IT’S AIMS AND TASKS. SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC ASPECTS. Rastorgueva T.A. History of English p 10 (Параграф 1, абзац 1-2) THE SUBJECT OF HISTORY OF ENGLISH IT’S AIMS AND TASKS. (P 10-12) AIMS 1) to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history sufficient to account for the principal features of present-day English; 2) to provide the student of English with a wider philogical outlook TASKS. 1) the difficulties of reading and spelling English; 2) the vocabulary; 3) the grammar; 4) theoretical nature SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC ASPECTS.( стр 10, абзац 2) The synchronic approach can be contrasted to the diachronic. When considered diachronically; every linguistic fact is interpreted as a stage or step in the never-ending evolution of language. In practice, however, the contrast of between diachronic and synchronic study is not so marked theory: we commonly resort to history to explain current phenomena in Mod E. Likewise in describing the evolution of language we can present it as a series of synchronic cross-sections, e.g. the English language of the age of Shakespeare (16th- 17th c.) or the age of Chaucer (14th c.). 2. Early English Historical Background The history of the English language is deeply rooted in the complex tapestry of Britain’s past, influenced by various cultures and languages over millennia. This overview will focus on two significant periods: Pre-Germanic Britain and the Period of Romanization. 1 Pre-Germanic Britain Before the arrival of Germanic tribes, the British Isles were inhabited for tens of thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests that early inhabitants included groups of hunters, gatherers, and later, agricultural communities. Celtic Tribes: The most notable early inhabitants were the Celts, who arrived in multiple waves around 1,000 B.C.E. They formed a tribal society characterized by kinship groups and clans. The Celts practiced agriculture and engaged in trade with neighboring regions, particularly with Celtic Gaul Cultural Practices: The Celts left behind significant archaeological sites, including burial mounds and stone structures like Stonehenge. Their society was organized around tribal affiliations and was rich in oral traditions, which would later influence the linguistic landscape of Britain Linguistic Landscape: By the time Germanic tribes began to invade in the 5th century C.E., the Celtic languages were predominant in Britain. These languages would later coexist with and influence the emerging English language following the Germanic invasions 2 The Period of Romanization The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 C.E. under Emperor Claudius and lasted until approximately 410 C.E. This period marked a significant transformation in British society, culture, and language. Roman Conquest: The Romans invaded primarily for economic reasons, seeking resources like tin and to establish strategic control over the region. They established Britannia as a province of the Roman Empire, leading to extensive urbanization and infrastructure development, including roads that facilitated trade and military movement Cultural Integration: The Roman presence introduced Latin as a dominant language among the elite and in administration. While many Britons continued to speak their native Celtic languages, Latin began to influence local dialects. This interaction created a hybrid culture known as Romano-British culture, which blended Roman customs with those of the indigenous Celtic peoples Withdrawal and Aftermath: The withdrawal of Roman legions around 410 C.E. left a power vacuum that led to increased invasions by Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes). This shift initiated a new phase in British history where the remnants of Roman civilization began to decline, giving way to a more fragmented society dominated by these new settlers 3 The interplay between these two periods—Pre-Germanic Britain’s Celtic roots and the transformative Roman influence—set the stage for the emergence of Old English as Germanic tribes settled in Britain and began to establish their language amidst a backdrop of cultural change. 3. Chronological division of the history of the English language. The main periods in the development of English. There are 2 types of periodization of English language: 1. Linguistic 2. Extralinguistic Linguistic periodization was suggested by Henry Sweet – the author of the first scientific phonetic and grammar of English language. He called the OE period – period of full endings; ME – period of reduced endings; NE – period of lost endings. Extralinguistic periodization is based on the historical enents which influenced English language, divided into 3 periods: 1) Old English period (Anglo-Saxons): the 5th century – the 11th century. 2) Middle English: the 11th – the 15th century. 3) New English is subdivided into 2 periods: a) Early New English (15th – 17th centuries) b) Late New English (17th century – present time)  The OE period extends from the arrival of Germanic tribes in Britain in the second half of 5th century to the end of 11th century. The invaders dominated the orig- inal Celtic-speaking inhabitants, whose languages survived largely in Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by invaders formed what is now called Old English. In the north-east the Vikings were settled; they spoke the North Germanic language – Norse. A huge number of settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family. The OE period ended with the Norman Conquest. The ME period. In 1066 William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England. The Norman kings and the high nobility spoke only a variety of French called Anglo-Norman. English continued to be the language of common people. The Anglo-Saxon continued to be until AD 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old-French or Latin. Among the changes was a broadening in the use of a unique aspect of English grammar, the “continuous” tenses, with the suffix “-ing”. The earliest sign of official recognition of English be the Normans was a proclamation issue of Henry III in 1258 to the councilors in parliament. It was written in French, Latin and English. The NE period From the late 15th century, the language changes into New English, often dated from the Great Vowel Shift. London-based dialect began to become widespread, a process aided by the introduction of the printing press into England by William Cax- ton in the late 1470s. The beginning of Late NE is generally accepted by the time of Shakespeare’s writings (1592-1616). The language had become clearly recognizable in NE. The English vocabulary today contains 75% of French words, because for more that 3 centuries England had been under the Norman Rule. Synchronic and diachronic aspects. The history pf English is based on 2 approaches: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic is a study of some phenomena in one epoch only. This approach was used by scholars of the prescientific period of the devel- opment of linguistics (before the 19th century) for applied purposes. They view the language as stable, unchangeable system. (Horizontal study) Diachronic approach – with its help some phenomena is studied in two epochs at least. In the first decade of the 19th century linguists viewed that the language is changing, unstable system that is developing at time. (Vertical study)  There is the distinct connection between the History of the language and the History of people speaking it. Its changes are caused both by inter- nal/linguistic/introlinguistic and by external/extralinguistic. In the other words changes in language depend on both inner causes and outer causes. 4. Old English written records provide a fascinating glimpse into the linguistic and cultural development of early medieval England. This essay will explore three key aspects of these records: runic inscriptions, Old English manuscripts, and the dramatic tribes and dialects that shaped the language. Drawing from "Teachers and Students Guide to the History of English" by Цатуря н, we will examine how these elements contribute to our understanding of Old English. 1. Runic Inscriptions Origins and Significance Runic inscriptions represent the earliest form of written communication in what is now England. The term "rune" derives from a word meaning "secret" or "mystery," reflecting the magical connotations associated with these symbols. The runic alphabet, known as futhark, was used by Germanic tribes long before their migration to Britain, with evidence of its use found in Scandinavia. This alphabet consists of characters that represent individual sounds, allowing for phonetic expression in writing. Characteristics of Runes Runes were primarily inscribed on hard materials such as stone, bone, or wood, which influenced their angular shapes. The number of runes varied across different Germanic languages; in Britain, it expanded to include 28 to 33 characters, compared to 16 or 24 found on the continent. Runes were typically employed for short inscriptions, often conveying personal names, place names, or messages believed to possess magical properties. Notable Inscriptions Among the most significant runic inscriptions are the Franks Casket and the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket features intricate carvings and inscriptions in both runes and Latin, showcasing a blend of cultural influences. It is believed to date back to the early 8th century and serves as a testament to the artistic and linguistic practices of the time. The Ruthwell Cross, another important artifact, contains verses from a poem that reflects Christian themes intertwined with pagan traditions 2. Old English Manuscripts Development of Written Language As Christianity spread throughout England in the 7th century, Latin became the dominant language of learning and writing. Monasteries emerged as centers of education where monks played a crucial role in preserving and producing texts. Initially, English scribes adapted the Latin alphabet to accommodate Old English sounds, leading to modifications in letter shapes and the introduction of new symbols. Early Manuscripts The earliest substantial examples of Old English writing include King Æthelberht's law code from around 589–616 AD, preserved in a single manuscript known as the Textus Roffensis. Other significant early texts include glosses—translations or explanations added to Latin texts—such as those found in Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, which contains fragments of Old English poetry like "Bede's Death Song" and "Cædmon's Hymn". Manuscript Preservation Over 400 manuscripts from the Anglo-Saxon period survive today, primarily dating from the 9th to 11th centuries. Many were lost during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century, making those that remain invaluable for understanding Old English literature. These manuscripts encompass various genres, including legal documents, religious texts, and heroic epics such as Beowulf, which is considered one of the greatest achievements of Old English literature. Dialectal Variations Old English manuscripts reflect regional dialects such as Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, and West Saxon. Much poetry likely originated in Anglian dialects (Northumbrian or Mercian) but was predominantly preserved in West Saxon copies during later periods. This dialectal variation illustrates how language evolved across different regions and influences. 3. Germanic Tribes and Dialects The Anglo-Saxon Settlement The Anglo-Saxon settlement began around the mid-5th century when tribes from southern Scandinavia and present-day Germany migrated to Britain. These tribes included the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians. Their languages merged over time to form what we now recognize as Old English. Dialectal Diversity Old English is characterized by its diverse dialects that emerged from different tribal influences: Northumbrian: Spoken in northern England. Mercian: Used in central England. Kentish: Found in southeastern England. West Saxon: Predominantly spoken in southern England; it became the standard dialect for literary works after King Alfred's reign. This diversity reflects not only geographical distinctions but also cultural variations among tribes. Influence on Literature The richness of Old English literature can be attributed to this variety of dialects. Many poems were likely composed in one dialect but later transcribed into another for preservation. For instance, Beowulf is thought to have originated in either Northumbrian or Mercian dialects but survives primarily in West Saxon form. This transition illustrates how language can adapt over time while retaining its core elements. The Role of King Alfred King Alfred played a pivotal role in promoting literacy and education during his reign (871–899). He recognized that culture had to be developed in the mother tongue; thus he translated several important works from Latin into Old English. His translations included historical texts such as Orosius’s World History and religious works like Pope Gregory’s Pastoral Care. These efforts were instrumental in standardizing West Saxon as a literary dialect. Practical Assignments 1. 2.Before the German invasion celtic languages were spoken in England: Welsh, Cornish, Cumbric, breton and Pictish. Also latin language were used as the roman inheritage and the language of trade Modern Celtic languages are Welsh, Irish, Breton, Scottish Gaelic, Cornish, Manx. These languages survived. English German Danish Dutch Swedish Noreegian Icelandic Flemish Afrikaans Yiddish Faroese Frisian 3. 1) The name "Britain" traces its origins back to ancient times and has evolved through various languages and cultures. Initially, the name comes from the Latin word "Britannia," which the Romans used to refer to the area of the British Isles under their control, particularly what is now England and Wales. The Romans themselves borrowed this term from earlier Greek and possibly Phoenician sources. The Greeks referred to the island as "Pretannia" (Πρεταννία), which is believed to have been adapted from a native term. This Greek name likely originated from the term the indigenous Celtic inhabitants used to refer to themselves. The term "Pretani" or "Pritani" is thought to be a Celtic word that meant "the painted ones" or "the tattooed folk," referring to the body art that was common among the peoples living in these islands. This points to a self-identification based on a cultural practice that was notable to outsiders. Over time, with linguistic evolution and the influences of various languages and cultures interacting with the island, "Pretannia" evolved in Latin to "Britannia." From the Middle Ages onward, as the English language developed and Latin was used less outside of scholarly contexts, the term "Britannia" became "Britain," the name by which the country is known today. 2) The descriptor "Great" was added to distinguish the larger island from the smaller ones, particularly in contrast to Brittany in northwest France, known as "Little Britain" (Britannia Minor). The term "Great Britain" essentially means the larger or greater British Isle and was used to differentiate the main island from the surrounding smaller islands and from Brittany across the English Channel, which shared cultural and historical ties with the Celtic peoples of the British Isles. 3) The origin of the name “England” lies in the Old English term ‘Engla land’, which translates to ‘Land of the Angles’. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in the British Isles during the 5th and 6th centuries. The linguistic roots of “England” can also be traced back to the Old English word ‘Englaland’, where ‘Engla’ denotes the Angles, and ‘land’ signifies ‘territory’ or ‘country’. This term not only encapsulates the Anglo-Saxon heritage of England but also reflects its distinct geographical identity. The medieval period witnessed a notable shift in the usage of England’s name. During this era, the indigenous population of England mostly spoke Old English, a Germanic language. Consequently, the term ‘Engla land’ gradually transformed into ‘Engeland’. This change exemplifies the linguistic evolution that altered the pronunciation and spelling of England’s name. As the medieval period progressed, England experienced various influences from neighboring countries. The Norman Conquest of 1066, for instance, introduced French-speaking rulers to England. This led to a fusion of languages, giving rise to the term ‘Engleterre’ in the French language. The coexistence of multiple linguistic influences contributed to the complexity of England’s name, reflecting the cultural diversity of the time. With the advent and spread of the English language during the Renaissance and beyond, the term ‘Engeland’ eventually transformed into the recognizable ‘England’. 4) The linguistic origins of Albion can be traced back to the Celtic word ‘albus,’ which means ‘white.’ This connection can be seen in the Latin term ‘albiōnēs,’ which refers to the people living in Britain. The usage of the term ‘Albion’ as the name for Britain can be dated back to ancient times, capturing the essence of the island’s distinctiveness.