Reviewer-for-the-1st-Monthly-Exam.docx

Reviewer for the 1^st^ Monthly Exam Lesson 1 **Philosophy** is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and reality. It involves thinking critically and systematically about life\'s big questions and seeking to understand the nature of the world and our place...

Reviewer for the 1^st^ Monthly Exam Lesson 1 **Philosophy** is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and reality. It involves thinking critically and systematically about life\'s big questions and seeking to understand the nature of the world and our place in it. **For example, when you wonder, \"What is the purpose of life?\" or \"What is right and wrong?\" you are engaging in philosophical thinking. Philosophy helps us explore these questions through reasoning and critical thinking.** Philosophy in the Western tradition is generally considered to have originated in ancient Greece. One of the earliest known philosophers was **Thales of Miletus**, who lived around 624-546 BCE. **Thales of Miletus** is often regarded as the first philosopher in **Western history**. He is known for his belief that water is the fundamental substance of the universe, meaning he thought everything originated from water. This idea marked a shift from mythological explanations of the world to rational, natural explanations, which is a key characteristic of philosophical thinking. Thales\' approach laid the groundwork for future philosophers to seek natural and logical explanations for the phenomena around them. In order to have a full grasp of what is the scope of philosophy, it is but good to know first its definition both etymological and scientific. **Philosophy** was derived from the **Greek word** philosophia which is a combination of Greek terms **philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom).** Thus, philosophy etymologically means Love of Wisdom. On the other hand, Philosophy scientifically defines as the science that deals with/ study of beings in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of human reason alone. **Philosophy** is a discipline that deals with the study of beings both **material and immaterial.** **Material beings** are composed of tangible reality found in the cosmos, e.g. chair, laptop, table, human person. Whereas, **immaterial beings** are those obviously intangible, e.g. notions of God, Spirit, love, language, beauty. Thus, philosophy covers all the topics in the cosmos and has an unending task to seek for the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of beings by the use of human reason. **Pythagoras** was an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician who lived around 570-495 BCE. He is best known for the **Pythagorean theorem** in mathematics, but his influence extends beyond mathematics to philosophy and religious teachings. **Pythagoras** called himself the first philosopher, which means **\"lover of wisdom,\"** because he believed that the pursuit of knowledge and understanding was the highest purpose in life. Unlike earlier thinkers who might have been more focused on practical or mythological explanations, Pythagoras emphasized the importance of rational thought, ethical living, and the study of the natural world as a way to achieve a harmonious and enlightened life. His philosophical contributions include the belief in the immortality of the soul, the idea of reincarnation, and the concept that reality is fundamentally mathematical in nature. Pythagoras founded a religious movement known as Pythagoreanism, which combined his philosophical and mathematical teachings with a way of life that emphasized self-discipline and the pursuit of spiritual purity. Progression of Philosophy in history Ancient philosophy Philosophy has been around the world since the dawn of human civilization. The Golden age of Greek philosophy took place in Athens in the 5th century BC. Thinkers in this period focused their philosophy on answering the question "What is the cosmos made of?" Thus, **Cosmocentricity** was the focus of philosophers during this time. Ancient philosophy encompasses the philosophical thought and traditions that originated in the ancient world. It is typically divided into several key periods: **Pre-Socratic Philosophy** **(circa 600--400 BCE)** - Key Thinkers: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus. - Focus: These early philosophers primarily explored the nature of the cosmos and the fundamental substance(s) of reality. They moved away from mythological explanations to seek rational and natural explanations. **Classical Philosophy (circa 400--323 BCE)** - Key Thinkers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. **Roman Philosophy (circa 30 BCE--500 CE)** - Key Thinkers: Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. - Focus: Roman philosophers were heavily influenced by Greek thought but adapted it to practical and ethical concerns. They focused on how philosophy could be applied to daily life and personal conduct. Medieval Philosophy The cosmocentric way of doing philosophy shifted to **Theocentric**- God centered kind of doing philosophy. Medieval philosophy refers to philosophy in Western Europe during the "medieval" period, the so called "Middle Ages." The Notion of a "Middle Age" was introduced in the fifteenth century for the period between the decline of classical pagan culture in Western Europe and what was taken to be rediscovery during the renaissance. **St. Augustine (354-430)** - Integrated Christian doctrine with Neoplatonism. - His works, such as \"Confessions\" and \"City of God,\" explored topics like the nature of time, memory, and the problem of evil. **St. Anselm (1033-1109):** - Formulated the ontological argument for the existence of God in his work \"Proslogion.\" - Emphasized the compatibility of faith and reason. **St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274):** - Synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. - His major work, \"Summa Theologica,\" addresses numerous philosophical and theological questions and remains highly influential in Christian thought. Modern Philosophy **Modern philosophy** typically refers to the period from the Renaissance in the 16th century to the 19th century. This era was marked by significant changes in thought and the development of new philosophical ideas, often in response to the scientific revolution and changes in political, social, and religious landscapes. **The modern Philosophy** is marked by the development of science and art in which the Catholic church is beginning to lose power in Europe that is developing intellectually and emotionally. The modern philosophical era saw the revival of **epistemology** as one of its central features, as new forms of science brought forth the question of whether or not empirical data is a suitable source of knowledge. René Descartes (1596-1650): - Contribution: Often called the \"Father of Modern Philosophy,\" Descartes is known for his method of doubt and the famous conclusion \"Cogito, ergo sum\" (\"I think, therefore I am\"). - Significance: His work laid the foundation for modern epistemology and rationalism, emphasizing the importance of doubt and questioning in the pursuit of knowledge. - Contribution: A leading figure in empiricism, Locke argued that knowledge comes from sensory experience. His theory of mind and the concept of the \"tabula rasa\" (blank slate) were revolutionary. - Significance: Locke\'s ideas influenced modern political philosophy, particularly his views on natural rights and government, which shaped the development of liberal democracy. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): - Contribution: Kant sought to reconcile rationalism and empiricism. His \"Critique of Pure Reason\" addressed the limits and scope of human understanding, introducing the concept of the \"categorical imperative\" in ethics. - Significance: Kant\'s work profoundly impacted metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics, shaping much of subsequent Western philosophy. **Thales of Miletus (c. 624 -- c. 546 BCE)** Thales of Miletus is often regarded as the first philosopher in Western history. He is known for his belief that water is the fundamental substance of the universe, meaning he thought everything originated from water. **Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE)** A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with the formulation of the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he established a community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy. **Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE)** He devoted himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena. He was among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms. Democritus is from Abdera in Thrace His philosophical outlook was characterized by cheerfulness and a focus on the importance of happiness, often making him appear in contrast to Heraclitus. Due to his light-hearted view on human follies and life, he earned the title \"The Laughing Philosopher.\" **Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) -** He proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human condition and he was credited with the saying, \"No man ever steps on the same river twice.\" Heraclitus was often referred to as the \"Weeping Philosopher\" because of his pessimistic view of human nature and the world, leading to a belief that people are generally foolish, and ignorant of the truth. **Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE)** He was a known advocate of a simple and virtuous life. For Diogenes, one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and actions. His emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went to the extreme, and he was said to have lived like a beggar. He was also known to be a vocal critic of well-known philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. His teachings and views were later developed by his followers and influenced the development of several schools of philosphy such as **Cynicism and Stoicism.** classical Philosophers **Socrates (c. 470/469 -- 399 BCE)** **"**Athens' street-corner philosopher" A Greek philosopher considered the father of Western philosophy. Socrates emphasized the importance of ethics and self-knowledge. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals during his time, but he himself did not claim to be \"wise\" and merely considered himself a \"midwife\" that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom. He also believed that philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with formulating the **Socratic Method** - a means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic. **Plato (c. 427 -- 347 BCE)** **"**The philosopher who would be king" An aristocratic man with plenty of money and a superb physique, Plato at one time won two prizes as a championship wrestler. the man's real (and little known) name was **Aristocles**; Plato was just a nickname given to him by his friends, whose original connotation referred to his **broad shoulders.** He is a student of Socrates, he wrote down his teacher\'s writings and incorporated some of his own ideas into them. His teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western philosophy. Plato was a Greek philosopher who founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world. Plato\'s most significant ideas included his Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea or template that can only be perceived in the mind; these nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging. His works, written as dialogues, explore various philosophical topics, including justice, politics, and the nature of reality. His most famous work is **\"The Republic,\"** which discusses justice and the ideal state. **Aristotle (384 -- 322 BCE)** "A long walk to the Golden Mean" Aristotle was Plato's best student. He went on to become the very well-paid tutor of Alexander the Great --- probably the highest-paid philosopher in history. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who made significant contributions to many fields, including logic, metaphysics, biology, ethics, and politics. He founded the Lyceum, a school in Athens, and his works laid the foundation for much of Western thought. Aristotle's \"Nicomachean Ethics\" and \"Politics\" are particularly influential. This great thinker was called a peripatetic philosopher **(peripateo = "to walk around")** because he liked to lecture to his students while taking a walk. Another group of philosophers was called stoics because they preferred sitting around on porches (stoa) when they shot the breeze. The founder of logical theory, Aristotle believed that the greatest human endeavor is the use of reason in a theoretical activity. One of his best-known ideas was his conception of "The Golden Mean" --- "avoid extremes," the counsel of moderation in all things. **Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE)** A Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer, Archimedes is best known for his contributions to mathematics and mechanics. He discovered the principle of buoyancy (Archimedes\' principle) and invented various devices, including the Archimedean screw for raising water. His work laid the groundwork for calculus and influenced later scientists. **Alexander the Great (356 -- 323 BCE)** A king of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in history by the age of 30, Alexander the Great is known for his military genius and successful conquests, including Persia, Egypt, and parts of India. Tutored by Aristotle, Alexander spread Greek culture across his empire, a period known as the Hellenistic Era. His legacy influenced the spread of Greek ideas and culture throughout the known world