Theories of Personality - A Review PDF

MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY CHAPTER 1: PERSONALITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY YOU SHOULD CARE Objectives:  Define what is personality  Understand different traits and characteristic  Dete...

MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY CHAPTER 1: PERSONALITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY YOU SHOULD CARE Objectives:  Define what is personality  Understand different traits and characteristic  Determine their own personality Defining Personality Personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human being. An individual’s personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique. Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes. Personality psychology is the study of human personality and how it varies among individuals and populations. Personality has been studied for over 2000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE and spanning through modern theories such as the psychodynamic perspective and trait theory. Early Philosophical Roots The word “personality” originates from the Latin word persona, which means “mask.” Personality as a field of study began with Hippocrates, a physician in ancient Greece, who theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids of the body known as “humors”. This theory, known as humorism, proposed that an individual’s personality was the result of the balance of these humors (yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood), which corresponded 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY to four dispositions (grumpy, melancholy, calm, and cheer, respectively). While this theory is no longer held to be true, it paved the way for further discoveries and insight into human personality. Interestingly, several words in the English language that describe personality traits are rooted in humorism: “bilious” means bad-tempered, which is rooted in humorists’ thought that yellow bile was associated with grumpiness; “melancholic” is from the Greek words for “black bile,” again rooted in humorists’ thought that black bile was associated with depression. Similarly, “phlegmatic” describes a calm personality and “sanguine” (from the Latin for “blood”) a cheerful or playful one. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IB 1FVbo8TSs A great deal of modern personality psychology is influenced by, and attempts to answer, the following five philosophical questions about what really determines personality: 1. Freedom versus determinism: How much, if any, of an individual’s personality is under their conscious control? 2. Heredity versus environment: Do internal (biological) or external (environmental) influences play a larger role in determining personality? 3. Uniqueness versus universality: Are individuals generally more alike (similar to each other) or different (unique) in nature? 4. Active versus reactive: Is human behavior passively shaped by environmental factors, or are humans more active in this role? 5. Optimistic versus pessimistic: Are humans integral in the changing of their own personalities (for instance, can they learn and change through human interaction and intervention)? 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IB 1FVbo8TSs https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FL Approaches to Studying Personality R6pW9v7b4 Research into these five philosophical questions has branched into several different approaches to studying personality. The major theories include the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning (or behaviorist), humanistic, biological, trait (or dispositional), and cultural perspectives.  Psychodynamic theory, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that human behavior is the result of the interaction among various components of the mind (the id, ego, and superego) and that personality develops according to a series of psychosexual developmental stages. 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY  Neo-Freudian theorists, such as Adler, Sigmund Freud: Sigmund Freud advanced a psychodynamic view of human Erikson, Jung, and Horney, expanded on personality that implicated the id, ego, and Freud’s theories but focused more on the superego as the main determinants of social environment and on the effects of individual differences in personality. culture on personality.  Learning theories, such as behaviorism, regard an individuals’ actions as ultimately being responses to external stimuli. Social learning theory believes that personality and behavior are determined by an individual’s cognition about the world around them.  Humanistic theory argues that an individual’s subjective free will is the most important determinant of behavior. Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed that people strive to become self-actualized—the “best version” of themselves.  Biological approaches focus on the role of genetics and the brain in shaping personality. Related to this, evolutionary theories explore how variation in individual personalities variance may be rooted in natural selection.  Trait theorists believe personality can be conceptualized as a set of common traits, or characteristic ways of behaving, that every individual exhibits to some degree. In this view, such personality traits are different from person to person but within an individual are stable over time and place. With any of these theories, it is important to keep in mind that the culture in which we live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes our personalities. Western ideas about personality are not necessarily applicable to other cultures, and there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. https://study.com/academy/lesson/personality-psychology- definition-theories http://cpbucket.fiu.edu/ppe3003vd1128/syllabus.html 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY CHAPTER 2: SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS Objectives:  Identify the hidden thoughts, behaviors, and desires that are creating problems in their day-to-day existence.  Understand the issues that have caused deeply rooted problems and a maladaptive perspective on life. You’ve almost certainly heard of Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis, but if you’re like most people, you’re not really sure what psychoanalysis is. You might also wonder how psychoanalysis differs from other forms of talk therapy, and how the theories behind psychoanalysis and other forms of talk therapy differ. In this piece, we’ll give a brief but comprehensive overview of psychoanalytic theory and practice, the impact of psychoanalysis on other disciplines and areas, and its most common critiques. So, let’s dive in and learn about Freud, his theories on human behavior and personality (some of which may seem kooky), and his role in the creation and popularization of talk therapy. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The Founder of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud and His Concepts It’s very likely you’ve heard of the influential but controversial founder of psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud. Freud was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Sigmund Freud Biography, 2017). He entered medical school and trained to become a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881. Soon after his graduation, he set up a private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His attention was captured by a colleague’s intriguing experience with a patient; the colleague was Dr. Josef Breuer and his patient was the famous “Anna O.,” who suffered from physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed, or hidden from her conscious mind. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7 vFf5CS27-Y What is Psychoanalysis? A Definition and History of Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and memories in or to lead the client to catharsis, or healing (McLeod, 2014). In other words, the goal of psychoanalysis is to bring what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness. This goal is accomplished through talking to another person about the big questions in life, the things that matter, and diving into the complexities that lie beneath the simple- seeming surface. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Model of Minds Freud was his model of the human mind. His model divides the mind into three layers, or regions: 1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live; 2. Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory; 3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our behavior, including primitive and instinctual desires (McLeod, 2013) Later, Freud posited a more structured model of the mind, one that can coexist with his original ideas about consciousness and unconsciousness. In this model, there are three metaphorical parts to the mind: 1. Id: The id operates at an unconscious level and focuses solely on instinctual drives and desires. Two biological instincts make up the id, according to Freud: eros, or the instinct to survive that drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior. 2. Ego: The ego acts as both a conduit for and a check on the id, working to meet the id’s needs in a socially appropriate way. It is the most tied to reality and begins to develop in infancy; 3. Superego: The superego is the portion of the mind in which morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod, 2013). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h g3l3Z2DBZk The image above offers a context of this “iceberg” model wherein much of our mind exists in the realm of the unconscious impulses and drives. If you’ve ever read the book “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding, then you have enjoyed the allegory of Freud’s mind as personified by Jack as the Id, Piggy as the ego, and Ralph as the superego. 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Defense Mechanisms Freud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has a different primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual. These defense mechanisms include:  Repression: The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one’s consciousness;  Denial: The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness, causing the individual to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening;  Projection: The ego attempts to solve discomfort by attributing the individual’s unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person;  Displacement: The individual satisfies an impulse by acting on a substitute object or person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g., releasing frustration directed toward your boss on your spouse instead); https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=WfeLzjqXemw 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY  Regression: As a defense mechanism, the individual moves backward in development in order to cope with stress (e.g., an overwhelmed adult acting like a child);  Sublimation: Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism involves satisfying an impulse by acting on a substitute but in a socially acceptable way (e.g., channeling energy into work or a constructive hobby) (McLeod, 2013). The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development Finally, one of the most enduring concepts associated with Freud is his psychosexual stages. Freud proposed that children develop in five distinct stages, each focused on a different source of pleasure: 1. First Stage: Oral—the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g., sucking); 2. Second Stage: Anal—the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling feces); 3. Third Stage: Phallic—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation); 4. Fourth Stage: Latent—the child has little or no sexual motivation; 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 5. Fifth Stage: Genital—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or vagina (e.g. sexual intercourse; McLeod, 2013). Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego. Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or “fixated” in a particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood (McLeod, 2013). The Interpretation of Dreams Another well-known concept from Freud was his belief in the significance of dreams. He believed that analyzing one’s dreams can give valuable insight into the unconscious mind. In 1900, Freud published the book The Interpretation of Dreams in which he outlined his hypothesis that the primary purpose of dreams was to provide individuals with wish fulfillment, allowing them to work through some of their repressed issues in a situation free from consciousness and the constraints of reality (Sigmund Freud Biography, n.d.). In this book, he also distinguished between the manifest content (the actual dream) and the latent content (the true or hidden meaning behind the dream). The purpose of dreams is to translate forbidden wishes and taboo desires into a non- threatening form through condensation (the joining of two or more ideas), displacement (transformation of the person or object we are concerned about into something or someone else), and secondary elaboration (the unconscious process of turning the wish- fulfillment images or events into a logical narrative) (McLeod, 2013). Freud’s ideas about dreams were game-changing. Before Freud, dreams were considered insignificant and insensible ramblings of the mind at rest. His book provoked a new level of interest in dreams, an interest that continues to this day. https://www.envisionyourevolution.com/child-development/sigmund-freud- stages-of-psychosexual-development/5821/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283638335_Roald_Dahl_A_psycho sexual_developmental_trajectory_study_illustrated_within_psychobiography 6  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY CHAPTER 3: CARL JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY Objectives:  Define what is analytical psychology  Emphasizes the importance of wholeness for each individual  Understand of individual experience with a recognition of the role played by broader truths and experiences. Carl Jung was an early supporter of Freud because of their shared interest in the unconscious. He was an active member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (formerly known as the Wednesday Psychological Society). When the International Psychoanalytical Association formed in 1910 Jung became president at the request of Freud. However, in 1912 while on a lecture tour of America Jung publicly criticized Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on infantile sexuality. The following year this led to an irrevocable split between them and Jung went on to develop his own version of psychoanalytic theory. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b P37RUJOzxI 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Carl Jung: Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology, in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis Most of Jung's assumptions of his analytical psychology reflect his theoretical differences with Freud. For example, while Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behavior, he also believed that we are shaped by our future (aspirations) too. Theory of the Libido Libido is a term used in psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created by the survival and sexual instincts. According to Sigmund Freud, the libido is part of the id and is the driving force of all behavior. While the term "libido" has taken on an overtly sexual meaning in today's world, to Freud, it represented all psychic energy and not just sexual energy. Jung (1948) disagreed with Freud regarding the role of sexuality. He believed the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalized psychic energy. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY For Jung, the purpose of psychic energy was to motivate the individual in a number of important ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and creatively. It was also an individual's motivational source for seeking pleasure and reducing conflict. Theory of the Unconscious Like Freud (and Erikson) Jung regarded the psyche as made up of a number of separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of. The ego is largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity. Like Freud, Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of the unconscious in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the unconscious consists of two layers. The first layer called the is essentially the same as Freud’s version of the unconscious. The personal unconscious contains temporality forgotten information and well as repressed memories. Jung (1933) outlined an important feature of the personal unconscious called complexes. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and memories that focus on a single concept. The more elements attached to the complex, the greater its influence on the individual. Jung also believed that the personal unconscious was much nearer the surface than Freud suggested and Jungian therapy is less concerned with repressed childhood experiences. It is the present and the future, which in his view was the key to both the analysis of neurosis and its treatment. However, by far the most important difference between Jung and Freud is Jung’s notion of the collective (or transpersonal) unconscious. This is his most original and controversial contribution to personality theory. This is a level of unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past. ‘The form of the world into which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’ (Jung, 1953, p. 188). 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY According to Jung, the human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples, and it is interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared conditioning (Seligman, 1971). However, more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate sub-systems of the personality. Jung (1947) called these ancestral memories and images archetypes. Personal Unconscious Jung's idea of the personal unconscious is comparable to the unconscious that Freud and other psychoanalysts referred to. To Jung, it is personal, as opposed to the collective unconscious, which is shared amongst all persons. The personal unconscious contains memories which are unaware we still possess, often as a result of repression. As we exist in a conscious state, we do not have direct access to our personal unconscious, but it emerges in our dreams or in a hypnotic state of regression. Collective Unconscious The collective unconscious is key to Jung's theories of the mind as it contains the archetypes. Rather than being born as a tabula rasa (a 'blank slate' in Latin) and being influenced purely by our environment, as the English philosopher John Locke believed, Jung proposed that we are each born with a collective unconscious. This contains a set of shared memories and ideas, which we can all identify with, regardless of the culture that we were born into or the time period in which we live. We cannot communicate through the collective unconscious, but we recognize some of the same ideas innately, including archetypes. For example, many cultures have cultivated similar myths independently of one another, which feature similar characters and themes, such as the creation of the universe. Archetypes Jung noted that within the collective unconscious there exist a number of archetypes which we can all recognise. An archetype is the model image of a person or role and includes the mother figure, father, wise old man and clown/joker, amongst others. The mother figure, for example, has caring qualities; she is dependable and compassionate. We all hold similar ideas of the mother figure and we see her across cultures and in our language - such as the term 'mother nature'. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Archetypes are often incarnated as characters in myths, novels and films - in the James Bond spy series, 'M' embodies the mother archetype, whom the spy trusts and returns to. Similar, archetypes permeate the cards of a Tarot deck: the mother archetype is seen in the qualities of the Empress card, whilst the Hermit embodies the wise old man archetype. The Persona Distinct from our inner self, Jung noted that we each have a persona - an identity which we wish to project to others. He used the Latin term, which can refer either to a person's personality the mask of an actor, intentionally, as the persona can be constructed from archetypes in the collective unconscious, or be influenced by ideas of social roles in society. For example, a father may adopt traits which he considers to be typical of a father - serious or disciplining, for example - rather than those which reflect his actual personality. Philip Zimbardo's study of social roles in a prison situation (1971) further demonstrated the effect that our role has on our persona. Assigned a role, such as that of a prison guard, people often behave as they would expect someone in their role to act.2 Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY As the persona is not a true reflection of our consciousness, but rather an idealised image which people aspire to, identifying too much with a persona can lead to inner conflicts and a repression of our own individuality, which Jung claimed could be resolved through individuation. Shadow archetype "Taken in its deepest sense, the shadow is the invisible saurian tail that man still drags behind him. Carefully amputated, it becomes the healing serpent of the mysteries." Carl Jung in The Integration of the Personality (English translation).3 The shadow archetype is composed primarily of the elements of ourselves that we consider to be negative. We do not show this side of the self to the outside world as it can be a source of anxiety or shame. The shadow may contain repressed ideas or thoughts which we do not wish to integrate into our outward persona, but these must be resolved in order to achieve individuation. However, it may also include positive traits, such as perceived weaknesses (for example, empathy) which may not fit into the 'toughness' that a person wants to present as a part of their persona. In literature, the shadow is often presented as a villainous character - for instance, as the snake in the Garden of Eden or The Jungle Book. Jung also observed Hyde, whom Dr. Jekyll transforms into, as representing the character's shadow in Robert Louis Stevenson's 1886 novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Anima/Animus archetypes The anima (in males) or animus (in females) represents the opposite gender to a person's self. As a person develops a gender identity, such as that of being male, they repress the aspects of their personality which might be considered to be feminine, such as empathy in social situations. Whilst these traits form part of the true, united self, they are held back from our persona and are represented in the form of the feminine archetype anima in males or the masculine archetype animus in females. The anima and animus are idealised impressions of the male or female, which emerge from the collective unconscious in dreams and inform our ideas of the opposite gender. As we age, they bring us into touch with the aspects of our personality repressed during the formation of a gender identity. For example, a man may allow their empathy to show more after the development of their masculine persona. The anima and animus can be found throughout our culture - Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice, for example, presents the anima archetype as the idealised Mr Darcey. 6  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Wise Old Man archetype Through his age and frailty, the Wise Old Man represents the power of peaceful contemplation in the absence of physical prowess. The wise old man, through quiet thought, foresees the future and offers guidance in turbulent times. The wise old man is a prophetic archetype and can often be seen in stories as a wizard, such as Gandalf in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Great Mother The Great Mother archetype embodies the idealized qualities of the mother figure. She is caring, compassionate, dependable and loving and, like the Wise Old Man, she may offer guidance when asked. The stock character of the 'fairy godmother' often embodies the Great Mother in literature. Other archetypes The archetypes that we have looked at in this article are just a few of those which Jung believed to populate our collective unconscious. Many more archetypes may be recognized, possessing non-exclusive qualities which may be held by multiple archetypes to different extents. Other archetypes include the magician, the child, the creator and the caregiver, among others. Individuation Jung believed that by acquiring the qualities of an archetype from the collective unconscious, we repress those attributes of our true self which do not conform to the archetype. To achieve individuation and realize our true self, he claimed that, rather than repressing these traits, we must 'integrate' them by allowing them to surface from the shadow and to coexist with those in the ego, or true self. Analytical psychologists may encourage this integration, or individuation, through therapy including free association. Introvert and Extrovert Personalities Aside from the theories of the workings of the psyche described above, Jung also believed the people could be divided by their personality type. He identified the introvert and extrovert personality types. Introverts, though quiet and sometimes unsociable, take the time to think over problems, whilst extroverts may be popular among their peers and unhesitant in expressing themselves. 7  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Jungian psychology today Although his theories are discussed to a lesser extend than Freud's psychodynamic approach, Carl Jung's ideas carry an influence whose effects can still be felt today. The idea that we project in our personas not our true personality but an aspirational, idealised version of who we would like to be, and Jung's distinction between inward- looking introvert and outgoing extrovert personality types, have lead to the development of numerous personality tests which are still used today, including that of Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers. Jung's theories have also impacted on the field of analytical psychology, which is commonly referred to as Jungian psychology. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MxIQF5VI HoM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dL0TvdiV N38 https://study.com/academy/lesson/analytical-psychology-definition-theory- practice.html https://www.psychologistworld.com/cognitive/carl-jung-analytical-psychology 8  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 4: Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology Objectives:  Explain Adler's theory on inferiority and superiority  Describe how birth order impacts individuals  Differentiate between the 5 birth order positions according to Adler Individual psychology body of theories of the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler, who held that the main motives of human thought and behaviour are individual man’s striving for superiority and power, partly in compensation for his feeling of inferiority. Every individual, in this view, is unique, and his personality structure—including his unique goal and ways of striving for it—finds expression in his style of life, this life-style being the product of his own creativity. Nevertheless, the individual cannot be considered apart from society; all important problems, including problems of general human relations, occupation, and love, are social. Alfred Adler (1870-1937), world renowned philosopher and psychiatrist, stressed the need to understand individuals within their social context. Alfred Adler’s school of individual school of psychology created a chasm in the field of psychology, which had been dominated by Freud’s psychoanalysis. While Freud focused on only the internal processes mainly sexual conflicts that affect a person’s psychology, Adler was adamant that to fully understand a person, a psychologist must also consider other internal factors as well as external factors. This is why he named his school of psychology individual; the word is intended to evoke a meaning of indivisibility, derived from the Latin individuum hhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v= npXF1JKh7sQ 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Compensation, Overcompensation, and Complexes Adler thought that the basic psychological element of neurosis was a sense of inferiority and that individuals suffering with the symptoms of this phenomenon spent their lives trying to overcome the feelings without ever being in touch with reality (White, 1917) Compensation for Weaknesses According to Adler (2013b), all infants have a feeling of inferiority and inadequacy immediately as they begin to experience the world. These early experiences, such as the need to gain the parents’ attention, shape the child’s unconscious, fictive goals. They give the child a need to strive towards rectifying that inferiority a need to compensate for weakness by developing other strengths. There are several outcomes that can occur on a child’s quest for compensation. First, if the child receives adequate nurturing and care, the child can accept his challenges, and learn that they can be overcome with hard work. Thus, the child develops “normally” and develops the “courage to be imperfect” (Lazarsfeld, 1966, pp. 163-165). Overcompensation However, sometimes, the process of compensation goes awry. One way in which this happens is that the feelings of inferiority become too intense, and the child begins to feel as though he has no control over his surroundings. He will strive very strenuously for compensation, to the point that compensation is no longer satisfactory. This culminates in a state of overcompensation, where the child’s focus on meeting his goal is exaggerated and becomes pathological. Here, Demosthenes started off with an inferiority due to his stutter, and overcompensated by not just overcoming his stutter, but taking up a profession that would normally be impossible for a stutterer. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MJU BHyxDq6Y https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9- Q9Gnxupyo 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Inferiority Complex Overcompensation can lead to the development of an inferiority complex. This is a lack of self-esteem where the person is unable to rectify his feelings of inferiority. According to Adler (2013a), the hallmark of an inferiority complex is that “persons are always striving to find a situation in which they excel” (p. 74). This drive is due to their overwhelming feelings of inferiority. There are two components of these feelings of inferiority: primary and secondary. Primary inferiority is the “original and normal feeling” of inferiority maintained by an infant (Stein & Edwards, 2002, p. 23). This feeling is productive, as it provides motivation for the child to develop. Secondary inferiority, on the other hand, is the inferiority feeling in the adult results when the child develops an exaggerated feeling of inferiority (p. 23). These feelings in the adult are what is harmful, and they comprise the inferiority complex. Superiority Complex The superiority complex occurs when a person has the need to prove that he is more superior than he truly is. Adler (2013a) provides an example of a child with a superiority complex, who is “impertinent, arrogant and pugnacious” (p. 82). When this child is treated through psychotherapy, it is revealed that the child behaves in this impatient manner because he feels inferior. Adler (2013a) claims that superiority complexes are born out of inferiority complexes; they are “one of the ways which a person with an inferiority complex may use a method of escape from his difficulties” (p. 97). Personality Typology, or Styles of Life 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Adler did not approve of the concept of personality types; he believed that this practice could lead to the neglect of each individual’s uniqueness. However, he did recognize patterns that often formed in childhood and could be useful in treating patients who fit into them. He called these patterns styles of life. Adler (2013a) claimed that once a psychologist knows a person’s style of life, “it is possible to predict his future sometimes just on the basis of talking to him and having him answer questions” (p. 100) Adler and his followers analyze a person’s style of life by comparing it to “the socially adjusted human being”. Birth Order The term birth order refers to the order in which the children of a family were born. Adler (2013b, pp. 150-155) believed that birth order had a significant and predictable impact on a child’s personality: First-born First-born children have inherent advantages due to their parents recognizing them as “the larger, the stronger, the older.” This gives first-born children the traits of “a guardian of law and order.” These children have a high amount of personal power, and they value the concept of power with reverence. Second-born Second-born children are constantly in the shadow of their older siblings. They are incessantly “striving for superiority under pressure,” driven by the existence of their older, more powerful sibling. If the second-born is encouraged and supported, he will be able to attain power as well, and he and the first-born will work together. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Youngest Child Youngest children operate in a constant state of inferiority. They are constantly trying to prove themselves, due to their perceptions of inferiority relative to the rest of their family. According to Adler, there are two types of youngest children. The more successful type “excels every other member of the family, and becomes the family’s most capable member.” Another, more unfortunate type of youngest child does not excel because he lacks the necessary self-confidence. This child becomes evasive and avoidant towards the rest of the family. Only Child Only children, according to Adler, are also an unfortunate case. Due to their being the sole object of their parents’ attention, the only child becomes “dependent to a high degree, waits constantly for someone to show him the way, and searches for support at all times.” They also come to see the world as a hostile place due to their parents’ constant vigilance. Early interaction with family members, peers and adults help to determine the role of inferiority and superiority in life. Adler believed that birth order had a significant and predictable impact on a child’s personality, and their feeling of inferiority. All human behavior is goal orientated and motivated by striving for superiority. Individuals differ in their goals and how they try to achieve them. A natural and healthy reaction to inferiority is compensation: efforts to overcome real or imaged inferiority by developing one's own abilities. If a person is unable to compensate for normal feelings of inferiority, they develop an inferiority complex. The overarching goal of Adlerian psychotherapy is to help the patient overcome feelings of inferiority. https://www.simplypsychology.org/alfred- adler.html#:~:text=Adler%20believed%20that%20birth%20order,motivated%20by%20striv ing%20for%20superiority.&text=The%20overarching%20goal%20of%20Adlerian,patient%2 0overcome%20feelings%20of%20inferiority. 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 5: Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends Objectives:  Compare and contrast the theories of Horney and Freud.  Discuss Horney's concepts of basic hostility and basic anxiety.  Identify and discuss Horney's three categories of neurotic needs. Psychoanalytic theorist Karen Horney developed one of the best- known theories of neurosis. She believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships. Horney's theory proposes that strategies used to cope with anxiety can be overused, causing them to take on the appearance of needs. According to Horney, basic anxiety (and therefore neurosis) could result from a variety of situations including "direct or indirect domination, indifference, erratic behavior, lack of respect for the child's individual needs, lack of real guidance, disparaging attitudes, too much admiration or the absence of it, lack of reliable warmth, having to take sides in parental disagreements, too much or too little responsibility, over-protection, isolation from other children, injustice, discrimination, unkept promises, hostile atmosphere, and so on and so on" (Horney, 1945). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k- rklMOews4 These 10 neurotic needs can be classed into three broad categories: 1. Needs that move you towards others: These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others. They are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 2. Needs that move you away from others: These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as cold, indifferent, and aloof. 3. Needs that move you against others: These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind. Neurotic people tend to utilize two or more of these ways of coping, creating conflict, turmoil, and confusion. The 10 Neurotic Needs Well-adjusted individuals utilize all three of the strategies (toward, away, and against others), shifting focus depending on internal and external factors. So what is it that makes these coping strategies neurotic? According to Horney, it is the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles. 1. The Neurotic Need for Affection and Approval This need includes the desires to be liked, to please other people, and meet the expectations of others. People with this type of need are extremely sensitive to rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others. 2. The Neurotic Need for a Partner Who Will Take Over One’s Life This involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need suffer extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these individuals place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a partner will resolve all of life’s troubles. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 3. The Neurotic Need to Restrict One’s Life Within Narrow Borders Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. They are undemanding and content with little. They avoid wishing for material things, often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing their own talents and abilities. 4. The Neurotic Need for Power Individuals with this need seek power for its own sake. They usually praise strength, despise weakness, and will exploit or dominate other people. These people fear personal limitations, helplessness, and uncontrollable situations. 5. The Neurotic Need to Exploit Others These individuals view others in terms of what can be gained through association with them. People with this need generally pride themselves on their ability to exploit other people and are often focused on manipulating others to obtain desired objectives, including such things as ideas, power, money, or sex. 6. The Neurotic Need for Prestige Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public recognition and acclaim. Material possessions, personality characteristics, professional accomplishments, and loved ones are evaluated based on prestige value. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of social status. 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 7. The Neurotic Need for Personal Admiration Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are narcissistic and have an exaggerated self- perception. They want to be admired based on this imagined self-view, not upon how they really are. 8. The Neurotic Need for Personal Achievement According to Horney, people push themselves to achieve greater and greater things as a result of basic insecurity. These individuals fear failure and feel a constant need to accomplish more than other people and to top even their own earlier successes. 9. The Neurotic Need for Self-Sufficiency and Independence These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality, distancing themselves from others in order to avoid being tied down or dependent upon other people. 10. The Neurotic Need for Perfection and Unassailability These individuals constantly strive for complete infallibility. A common feature of this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly change or cover up these perceived imperfections. While neuroticism is no longer considered a mental health diagnosis, researchers continue to investigate this aspect of personality. While popular culture often paints neurotic behaviors as quirky and cute, neurosis may play a role in mood and anxiety problems. Recognizing your own neurotic tendencies can help you better understand your own behaviors. By addressing these issues, people can often improve their overall mental 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY health and wellness. Researchers have found that mindfulness, or being aware of your own thoughts, might be a useful approach for combating neurotic, negative thoughts that contribute to worry, anxiety,1 and relationship problems. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ej kXkzsZAHw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ua Uq83pH7s0&t=1s https://www.verywellmind.com/how-neuroticism-affects-your-behavior- 4782188#:~:text=In%20general%2C%20people%20who%20are,their%20be haviors%20as%20a%20result. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02264/full 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 6: Erik Erikson: Identity Theory Objectives:  Summarize the life and work of Erik Erikson  List and describe the stages of Erik Erikson's psychosocial stage theory of development. Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more, unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½ 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+ 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop. If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Success and Failure in Stage One Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them. Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities. What Happens During This Stage? The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy. For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control? Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided. A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive." During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245) This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society. In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member. 6  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care. 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair. Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65). 7  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear. Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced. By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001). Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth. Erikson’s theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences. However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution. Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage. However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory. One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=He7CrBLn-RE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oYTxw0z0Qe8 https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html 8  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 7: Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality Objectives:  Discuss Allport’s definition of personality  Explain the distinction between motivational and stylistic disposition  List and discuss supports characteristics of psychological healthy personality. Allport's Trait Theory Allport's theory of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes, and traits. Allport (1937) believes that personality is biologically determined at birth, and shaped by a person's environmental experience. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Trait Theories of Personalities Trait theorists believe personality can be understood by positing that all people have certain traits, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are prominent aspects of personality that are exhibited in a wide range of important social and personal contexts. In other words, individuals have certain characteristics that partly determine their behavior; these traits are trends in behavior or attitude that tend to be present regardless of the situation. An example of a trait is extraversion–introversion. Extraversion tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved and solitary behavior. An individual may fall along any point in the continuum, and the location where the individual falls will determine how he or she responds to various situations. Extraversion–Introversion: This image is an example of a personality trait. At one end is extraversion (with a preference for more stimulating environments), and at the other end is introversion (with a preference for less stimulating environments). An individual may fall at any place on the continuum. The idea of categorizing people by traits can be traced back as far as Hippocrates; however more modern theories have come from Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Gordon Allport (1897–1967) Gordon Allport was one of the first modern trait theorists. Allport and Henry Odbert worked through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the English language available and extracted around 18,000 personality-describing words. From this list they reduced the number of words to approximately 4,500 personality-describing adjectives which they considered to describe observable and relatively permanent personality traits. Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:  Cardinal traits dominate and shape an individual’s behavior, such as Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed or Mother Theresa’s altruism. They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively known as the individual’s master control. They are considered to be an individual’s ruling passions. Cardinal traits are powerful, but few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities are typically composed of multiple traits. Cardinal traits were the most dominant, but also the rarest. Such traits are so intrinsically tied to an individual's personality that the person becomes almost synonymous with those qualities.2 Cardinal traits often develop later in life and serve to shape almost all aspects of an individual's purpose, behavior, and attitudes. Historical figures are often thought of in terms of their cardinal traits. Some examples include: Mother Teresa is strongly associated with goodness and charity. Today, her name is virtually synonymous with those traits. Adolph Hitler is associated with evil, and his name evokes the embodiment of ruthlessness and depravity. Einstein is known for his genius, and today his name is often used as a synonym for brilliance. Machiavelli (ruthlessness) Christ-like (good, faithful, holy) 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Ebenezer Scrooge (greedy) Martin Luther King, Jr. (justice and equality) Abraham Lincoln (honesty) Sigmund Freud (psychoanalytical)  Central traits come next in the hierarchy. These are general characteristics found in varying degrees in every person (such as loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, sneakiness, wildness, or grouchiness). They are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behavior. Allport believed that central traits are much more common and serve as the basic building blocks of most people’s personality. If you think of the major terms you might use to describe your overall character; then those are probably your central traits. You might describe yourself as smart, kind, and outgoing. Those are your central traits. Allport believed that most people have about five to ten central traits and that most people contain many of these traits to a certain degree. A few examples of central traits include honesty, friendliness, generosity, anxiety, and diligence.2  Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not quite as obvious or consistent as central traits. They are plentiful but are only present under specific circumstances; they include things like preferences and attitudes. These secondary traits explain why a person may at times exhibit behaviors that seem incongruent with their usual behaviors. For example, a friendly person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another is not an anxious person but always feels nervous speaking publicly. The secondary traits were the third category of traits that Allport described.2 Such personality traits that tend to present themselves in certain situations. For example, you might normally be a pretty easy-going person, but you might become short-tempered when you find yourself under a lot of pressure. Such traits often reveal themselves only in certain situations. A normally cool, collected person, for example, might become very anxious when faced with speaking in public.  Final Thoughts While the cardinal traits are considered among the most dominant of characteristics, they are also quite rare. Few people are so ruled by a singular theme that shapes the course of their entire life. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The trait theories of personality suggest that each person’s personality is composed of a number of different characteristics. While early conceptualizations of the trait approach suggested hundreds or even thousands of traits existed (such as Allport’s approach), modern ideas propose that personality is composed of approximately five broad dimensions. Allport hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s behavior and personality, and he referred to these forces as genotypes and phenotypes. Genotypes are internal forces that relate to how a person retains information and uses it to interact with the world. Phenotypes are external forces that relate to the way an individual accepts his or her surroundings and how others influence his or her behavior. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2-EXoNMTi8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60BtNaiG4Qk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psK6P4LPCBM https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-cardinal-traits-2794966 https://www.simplypsychology.org/personality- theories.html#:~:text=Allport's%20Trait%20Theory,motivational%20processes%20that%20 influence%20behavior.&text=Allport%20(1937)%20believes%20that%20personality,by%20 a%20person's%20environmental%20experience. 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 8: Abraham Maslow: Needs – Hierarchy Theory Objectives:  Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  Understand the hierarchy of needs. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Abraham Maslow is one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century. His biggest contributions to psychology were his contributions to humanistic psychology as well as his development of the hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s career in psychology greatly predated the modern positive psychology movement, but it might not look the same were it not for him. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Deficiency needs vs. growth needs This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs). Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become. Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69). When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs. The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes: Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. 1. Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. 2. Safety needs - Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability and control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools, business and medical care). For example: emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury). 3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior Examples: include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 4. Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. 5. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings, pictures, or inventions. Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy: Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987). Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description. Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs. Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71). The expanded hierarchy of needs It is important to note that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b). Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s. 1. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). 4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64). 8. Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith, etc.). Despite originally being interested in philosophy, Abraham Maslow first entered the world of psychology through behaviorism. Before long, Maslow’s frustration with the limitations of behaviorism and psychoanalysis led him to help develop humanistic psychology and his hierarchy of needs. This hierarchy of needs continues to be relevant today. Beyond the hierarchy of needs, the lessons of humanistic psychology have been partially picked up by the positive psychology movement. Specifically, both movements focus on humanity beyond mental illness and beyond treating symptoms. To illustrate this point, positive psychology does not necessarily focus on increasing well-being solely for the sake of eliminating anxiety but instead focuses on increasing well-being for the sake of improving people’s lives and improving society. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-4ithG_07Q https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L0PKWTta7lU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HshJ86-DuUA https://positivepsychology.com/abraham- maslow/#:~:text=Abraham%20Maslow%20is%20one%20of,of%2 0the%20hierarchy%20of%20needs. 5  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Chapter 9: Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory Objectives:  Define what is self-actualization.  Compare and contrast the self-actualization to Maslow’s humanistic approach Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow. However, Rogers (1959) added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualization took place. 1  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied. Self - Actualization "The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism” (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. "As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves." Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human- beingness' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative. They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience. 2  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The Fully Functioning Person Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing. In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing. Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person: 1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms). 2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment). 3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. 4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. 5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know. Often such people are high achievers in society. Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the achievement of any one person. 3  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Personality Development Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as "the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself." The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others. According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal- self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components: Self-worth Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. Self-image How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world. 4  MODULE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Ideal-self This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc. Congruence A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. Where a person’s ideal se