PSY 1600 Exam Study Guide PDF

Chapter 1 Different types of development; physical, cognitive, social, personality (s + p are one domain) 1. physical - body's physical make up, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep 2. cognitive - development involvi...

Chapter 1 Different types of development; physical, cognitive, social, personality (s + p are one domain) 1. physical - body's physical make up, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep 2. cognitive - development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior Social - the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable other the course of life Personality - development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change in over the life span Id, ego, superego - personality has three aspects 1. id - raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth 2. ego - part of the personality that is rational and reasonable; mediator 3. super ego - a person's conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong Theoretical perspectives (psychodynamic perspective, psychoanalytic, information processing perspective, contextual perspective, evolutionary) 1. psychodynamic - behavior throughout life is motivated by inner unconscious forces, stemming from childhood, and is generally beyond people's awareness and control psychoanalytic= the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior Freud’s psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, etc) - oral → anal → phallic → latency→ genital - oral = birth to 12-18 months; interest in oral gratification from sucking and eating - anal= 12-18 months to 3 years; going to the bathroom - phallic= 3-5/6 years; interest in genitals coming to terms with oedipal conflict and identifying themselves with a same sex parent  - latency= 5-6 years to adolescence development of skills and knowledge rather than sexual interests; sexual concerns are largely unimportant - Adolescence to adulthood (freud)= reemergence of sexual interests and establishments psychosocial= the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development 1. Birth - 12 to 18 months = Trust VS. Mistrust 2. 12 to 18 months - 3 years= Autonomy VS shame and doubt 3. 3 to 5-6 years= Initiative VS. Guilt 4. 5-6 years to adolescence= Industry VS. Inferiority 5. Adolescence= Identity vs. Role diffusion 6. Early adulthood= Intimacy VS. isolation 7. Middle adulthood= Generality VS stagnation 8. Late adulthood= Ego-integrity vs. despair 2. Behavioral (watson, skinner, and bandura ) - development can be understood through studying observable behavior and environmental stimuli classical conditioning (association) - a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response operant conditioning - a type of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences; associated with Skinner social cognitive learning (modeling); Bandura - learning by observing the behavior of another person (who is a model) - behavior is learned primarily through observation/imitation and not through trial and error (which is part of operant conditioning) - psychologist associated with observational learning = Bandura 3. Humanistic (rogers and maslow)  - behavior is chosen through free will and motivated by our natural capacity to strive to reach our full potential 4. Contextual (bronfenbrenner and vygotsky) - development should be viewed in terms of the interrelationship of a person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds - contextual suggests that a person’s unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context Bronfenbrenner - Biolecological perspective= the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals Bronfenbrenner’s 5 levels 1. Microsystem - everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives (caregivers, teachers, friends) 2. Mesosystem - provides connections between various aspects of the microsystem; children is to parent as student is to teacher 3. Exosystem - broader influences, encompassing societal institutions 4. Macrosystem - LARGER cultural influences on an individual; types of governments, religious and political value systems, etc. 5. chronosystem - underlies each of the previous systems; involves passage of time and historical changes Vygotsky - Sociocultural theory= approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture 5. Evolutionary (Darwin and Lorenz) - behavior is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors; traits and behavior that are adaptive for promoting the survival of our species have been inherited through natural selection Information processing (approach) - models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information Sensitive vs critical periods of development - critical= a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environment stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally - sensitive= a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences Three questions psychologists ask about development: monoism vs.dualism, discontinuous vs continuous, nature vs nurture 1. Monoism vs dualism - 2. Discontinuous vs continuous change - Continuous = gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels - discontinuous= development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages - some forms of development fall toward the continuous end of the continuum, whereas others lie closer to the discontinuous end 3. Nature vs nurture - how much of people’s behavior is due to nature and how much is due to nurture? - nature= traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents (genes) - it encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information (maturation) - nurture= environmental influences that shape behavior - behavior is NOT SOLELY the result of either nature or nurture; it’s a mix of both psychologist associated with cognitive development= Piaget Piaget’s concepts of schemas, assimilation, accommodation (all part of his cognitive theory) - Human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions - In infants, such schemes represent concrete behavior—a scheme for sucking, for reaching, and for each separate behavior - growth in children’s understanding of the world can be explained by assimilation and accommodation  - Assimilation= process through which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking - Assimilation occurs when people use their current ways of thinking about and understanding the world to perceive and understand a new experience - In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events - Assimilation + accommodation work in tandem to bring about cognitive development individualism vs. collectivism - individualism= dominant Western philosophy that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual - collectivism= the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual - people raised in collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize the welfare of the groups to which they belong, sometimes even at the expense of their own personal well-being Chapter 2 Genotype vs phenotype - (at the moment of conception), the content of a single human cell= 25,000 genes and 46 chromosomes (23 chromosome pairs) - genotype= the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism; consider alleles (copies of a gene) and DNA - phenotype= an observable trait; the trait that is actually seen Genetic counseling - the discipline that focuses on helping people deal with issues relating to inherited disorders - the newest role of genetic counselors involves testing people to identify whether they themselves, rather than their children, are susceptible to future disorders due to genetic abnormalities (if any) Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins **** 1. monozygotic= genetically identical (twins) - they come from the same original zygote - a cluster of cells in the ovum split off within the first 2 weeks after fertilization - → two genetically identical zygotes 2. dizygotic= fraternal twins - two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time - NOT genetically identical stages of prenatal development (3) **** 1. germinal - conception- 2 weeks; shortest stage - zygote divides into a ball of cells through cell duplication (mitosis) and implants into the uterus 2. embryonic - weeks 2-8; it develops major parts of body 3. fetal - week 8- birth (longest stage) - weight gain and organs/brain structures continue maturing, which will allow it to survive by itself teratogens - environmental agent, such as drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produces a birth defect senses we’re born with; which ones are fully developed in the womb **** - Visual acuity is not fully developed in womb - Auditory acuity is not fully developed - We are sensitive to touch; sense of touch is fully developed in womb - Smell and taste are well developed/sophisticated already Chapters 3-6 ******* Weight gain/physical growth during first year of life - average newborn weighs around 3,400 grams (about 7.5 pounds); about 20 inches tall - At birth, head size is about 25% of baby’s body - at 5 months, the average infant’s birthweight has doubled, and he/she weighs around 15 pounds - By the first birthday, the baby’s weight has tripled to about 22 pounds - By the end of the first year, the typical baby grows almost a foot and is about 30 inches tall SIDS; also, what helps to prevent it? - SIDS= sudden infant death syndrome - unexplained death of a seemingly healthy baby while sleeping - Boys are slightly more likely than girls to die of SIDS  - Infants are most vulnerable between the second and fourth months of life. - Nonwhite infants are more likely to develop SIDS compared to other racial or ethnic groups. - Babies who've had siblings or cousins die of SIDS are at higher risk of SIDS. - Babies who live with smokers have a higher risk of SIDS. - Both being born early and having a low birth weight increase a baby's chances of SIDS Physical factors associated with SIDS: 1. brain defects; a portion of the brain that controls breathing and arousal from sleep hasn't matured enough to work properly 2. low birth weight 3. Premature birth or being part of a multiple birth increases the likelihood that a baby's brain hasn't matured completely→ they have less control over such processes as breathing and heart rate 4. Many infants who die of SIDS had recently had a cold, which might contribute to breathing problems. Environmental factors associated with SIDS: 1. Sleeping on the stomach or side - Less difficulty breathing if they are placed on their back to sleep.. 2. Sleeping on a soft surface - Lying face down on a fluffy comforter, a soft mattress, or a waterbed can block an infant's airway 3. Sharing a bed - The risk increases if the baby sleeps in the same bed with parents, siblings, or pets 4. Overheating - Being too warm while sleeping can increase a baby's risk of SIDS Why can’t we move as quickly as newborns/infants - consider head size - newborns have relatively underdeveloped brains Why are we born with variety of reflexes (examples of them) - reflexes= organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli - They help infants adapt to their new surroundings and serve to protect their well-being - sucking reflex and swallowing reflex allow infant to ingest food right away  - rooting reflex= turning in the direction of a source of stimulation (such as a light touch) near the mouth - guides the infant toward potential sources of food that are near its mouth, such as mother’s nipple - cough, sneeze, and blink=reflexes that help baby avoid potentially bothersome or hazardous stimuli Separation anxiety - The distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs - Universal across cultures - Usually begins at about 7 or 8 months of age, peaks around 14 months, and then decreases - Largely attributable to brain development and the increased cognitive abilities of infants - the same cognitive advances allowing them to respond so positively to those people with whom they are familiar also give them the ability to recognize people who are unfamiliar - They experience fear around this age because they start anticipating and predicting events - if something happens that they don’t expect → fear Attachment patterns (4) - attachment= positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual 1. avoidant - infant doesn’t seek proximity to mother - after mother leaves, baby seems to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior 2. secure - infant uses mother as a kind of home base and is at ease when she is present - when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns 3. ambivalent - Infant displays both positive and negative reactions to their mother - They show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her 4. disorganized-disoriented - Infant shows inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her - they may be the least securely attached children of all Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt (first 2 stages of erikson) 1. trust vs. mistrust - Positive= Feelings of trust from environmental support  - Negative= Fear and concern regarding others - infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers - if infants are able to develop trust→ sense of hope, which lets them feel they can fulfill their needs successfully - feelings of mistrust→ infants see the world as harsh and unfriendly, may have later difficulties in forming close bonds with others 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt - Positive= self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged - Negative= Doubts about self, lack of independence Temperament vs personality - We are born with temperament - temperament= patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual - refers to how children behave, as opposed to what they do or why they do it - it tends to be stable, but it is NOT fixed and unchangeable Three types 1. Easy (most common) - positive disposition - body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable - generally positive, showing curiosity about new situations - their emotions are moderate or low in intensity 2. difficult - have more negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations - when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw. 3. slow to warm - inactive - show relatively calm reactions to their environment - moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly - Personality includes habits of emotionally relating and responding to people/events in our lives - Individual differences that make us unique - We were born with neuroticism and extroversion (2 out of the “big 5” personality traits) - neuroticism= degree of emotional stability an individual characteristically displays - Extroversion= degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable  - “Big 5” personality traits= Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN) Erikson suggested growth and change continues throughout the life span Adult who is critically overweight may be seen as not being rewarded for good nutritional snd exercise habits= behavioral Gross motor skill= throwing ball In the embryonic stage, the head represents about 50% of the total length of the embryo action= knowledge (piaget); TRUE ; he believes infants acquire knowledge through action Piaget believes that the exact timing of a stage reflects an interaction between the infant’s level of physical maturity and experience of the environent