Review Terms - Unit 1 Test PDF

Chapter 2: Renaissance Dark Ages (medieval, monks): ○ Period: 5th to 15th century, marked by feudalism and limited intellectual progress. ○ Monks: Preserved classical knowledge in monasteries, played a key role in education and copying m...

Chapter 2: Renaissance Dark Ages (medieval, monks): ○ Period: 5th to 15th century, marked by feudalism and limited intellectual progress. ○ Monks: Preserved classical knowledge in monasteries, played a key role in education and copying manuscripts. Renaissance (Italy): ○ Definition: "Rebirth" of classical GrecoRoman culture, marked by a surge in arts, science, and humanism. ○ Italy: The heart of the Renaissance, cities like Florence and Venice flourished culturally and economically. Venice (trade): ○ Major trading center linking Europe with the East; controlled Mediterranean commerce. ○ Wealth from trade fueled patronage of the arts and architecture. Florence (banks): ○ The banking capital of the Renaissance, with the Medici family leading as patrons of art and culture. ○ Florentine banks funded largescale Renaissance projects, including churches and art commissions. Humanism: ○ Intellectual movement focusing on human potential and achievements, inspired by classical texts. ○ Shifted focus from religious themes to humancentered subjects in literature, art, and philosophy. Antiquity (revival): ○ Renaissance scholars sought to revive and emulate classical GrecoRoman art, philosophy, and science. ○ Renewed interest in ancient texts by thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero.  Medici patrons (Church): ○ The Medici family were powerful bankers who sponsored artists like Michelangelo and da Vinci. ○ Their support of the Church included funding for religious art, helping cement Florence’s cultural influence. Arts (Michelangelo): ○ A Renaissance master known for sculptures like David and painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. ○ His works bridged humanism and religious devotion through their depiction of the human body. Religious themes (Sistine Chapel): ○ Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling depicts scenes from the Bible, blending religious themes with Renaissance humanism. Classical themes (Botticelli): ○ Sandro Botticelli incorporated mythology into his works, like The Birth of Venus, blending classical beauty with Renaissance ideals. Da Vinci (High Renaissance): ○ Leonardo da Vinci exemplified the High Renaissance with masterpieces like Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. ○ He merged art, science, and innovation through his drawings and inventions. Architecture: ○ Revival of classical Roman and Greek architectural forms, focusing on symmetry, proportion, and the use of columns and domes (e.g., Brunelleschi’s dome in Florence). Women (family, patrons): ○ Women played crucial roles as patrons of the arts, such as Isabella d’Este, who supported artists and intellectuals. ○ Some noblewomen were involved in politics and cultural affairs, shaping Renaissance society.  Isabella d’Este: ○ A prominent female patron known for her influence in Renaissance Italy, commissioning works from renowned artists. Education (classics, Greek, boys): ○ Education during the Renaissance focused on classical languages (Latin, Greek) and texts, typically reserved for boys of noble or wealthy families. Humanists (Petrarch): ○ Petrarch is considered the "Father of Humanism," promoting the study of classical texts and reviving interest in ancient authors. Literature (antiquity cult): ○ Renaissance writers idealized classical antiquity, seeking to revive the wisdom and values of ancient civilizations in contemporary culture. Society (hierarchical): ○ Renaissance society was rigidly structured, with a clear hierarchy from nobility to commoners. ○ Social mobility was limited, though the middle class of merchants and bankers gained increasing influence. Nobility: ○ Nobles maintained political power and often served as patrons of the arts, playing a central role in the cultural flourishing of the Renaissance. Urban shift: ○ Cities like Florence, Venice, and Rome grew as cultural and economic centers during the Renaissance, drawing artists, scholars, and merchants. Middle class (merchants, bankers): ○ The rise of a wealthy middle class, especially in trade and banking, contributed to the financing of art, architecture, and learning.  Machiavelli (The Prince): ○ Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince outlined a pragmatic, sometimes ruthless, approach to politics, focusing on realpolitik rather than morality. Secular: ○ Renaissance culture shifted towards secularism, focusing more on worldly subjects and human achievements rather than purely religious themes. Warfare (cannon, Ottomans): ○ Advancements in military technology, like cannons, transformed warfare, while the rise of the Ottoman Empire challenged European powers. Mercenaries: ○ Many Renaissance conflicts were fought by mercenaries, hired soldiers who were loyal to pay rather than nation or ideology. Science (ancients, Ptolemy, observation): ○ Renaissance science built upon ancient knowledge, especially from figures like Ptolemy, but introduced observation and experimentation as key methods of inquiry. Copernicus (astronomy): ○ Copernicus revolutionized astronomy by proposing a heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging the geocentric model long upheld by the Church. Invasion: ○ Renaissance Italy saw numerous invasions and conflicts between foreign powers, including Spain and France, competing for dominance in the region. Chapter 3: Reformation Catholic Church (medieval power): ○ The Church was a powerful institution during the medieval period, both spiritually and politically. ○ The Church owned vast amounts of land and held significant influence over European rulers and societies. Landowner: ○ The Church was one of the largest landowners in Europe, giving it economic as well as spiritual control over its territories. Papal authority: ○ The Pope was the supreme authority in the Catholic Church, influencing not just religious matters but also politics and diplomacy. Avignon Captivity: ○ Period (1309 to 1377) when the papacy was based in Avignon, France, leading to a loss of credibility and division within the Church. Renaissance (St. Peter’s, indulgences): ○ The Renaissance Popes, such as those who commissioned St. Peter's Basilica, engaged in lavish spending, funded by indulgences (payments for the forgiveness of sins). Secular popes (Alexander VI): ○ Renaissance Popes like Alexander VI were more focused on political power and wealth than spiritual leadership, contributing to Church corruption. Discredited Church: ○ The Church’s corruption, indulgences, and political entanglements disillusioned many people, paving the way for the Reformation. Reformers (Hus): ○ Jan Hus (Bohemia) criticized the Church’s corruption and was burned at the stake for heresy. His ideas influenced later reformers.  Wycliffe (Lollards): ○ John Wycliffe (England) was an early critic of the Church, advocating for scriptures in the vernacular. His followers, the Lollards, spread his ideas. Scriptures (vernacular): ○ Reformers argued that the Bible should be accessible to all in the vernacular (local languages), rather than Latin, which only clergy understood. Humanism (secular): ○ The humanist movement contributed to secular thinking, encouraging critical examination of the Church and promoting education and literacy. Literature (Erasmus): ○ Desiderius Erasmus, a leading humanist, called for reform in the Church, criticizing its excesses but advocating change from within. Church corruption (indulgences, relics): ○ The selling of indulgences and the veneration of relics became symbols of the Church's materialism and spiritual decay. Luther (Germany): ○ Martin Luther, a German monk, became the face of the Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church with his 95 Theses (1517), criticizing indulgences and papal authority. 95 Theses: ○ A document written by Luther, condemning the Church’s practices, especially indulgences, and calling for reform. Excommunication: ○ Luther was excommunicated by the Pope, but his ideas continued to spread, leading to the birth of Protestantism.  Protestantism: ○ The movement sparked by Luther's reforms, advocating for a return to scripture, faith alone (sola fide), and rejecting papal authority. Printing press (literacy): ○ The printing press, invented by Gutenberg, played a crucial role in spreading Reformation ideas, making books more accessible and increasing literacy. Calvin (Switzerland): ○ John Calvin, a French theologian, established a theocratic government in Geneva, promoting a strict version of Protestantism and influencing reformers across Europe. Theocracy (Calvin’s Geneva): ○ Calvin’s Geneva was governed by religious laws, serving as a model for reformed Protestant communities. Reformed (spread: Holland, Scotland): ○ Calvinism spread throughout Europe, influencing Holland, Scotland, and other regions, forming the basis for Reformed churches. Sola fide: ○ The Protestant belief that salvation is achieved through faith alone, not through good works or indulgences. Europe (split → war): ○ The Reformation split Europe into Catholic and Protestant states, leading to religious conflicts and wars (e.g., the Thirty Years' War). England: Henry VIII, Anglican Church: ○ Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church and established the Anglican Church (Church of England) after the Pope refused to annul his marriage. Monastery lands: ○ Henry VIII dissolved Catholic monasteries and seized their lands, redistributing them to loyal nobles.  Thomas More: ○ A Catholic humanist and advisor to Henry VIII, executed for refusing to accept Henry’s break with the Catholic Church. Counter Reformation (Rome): ○ The Catholic Church's response to the Reformation, aimed at reforming internal corruption and reaffirming Catholic doctrine. Council of Trent: ○ A series of meetings (1545 to 1563) where the Catholic Church addressed Reformation challenges, clarifying doctrine, reforming clerical practices, and condemning Protestantism. Jesuits (Ignatius Loyola): ○ The Society of Jesus (Jesuits), founded by Ignatius Loyola, became the Catholic Church’s most effective force in education, missionary work, and combating Protestantism. Inquisition: ○ The Catholic Church used the Inquisition to root out heresy, particularly in Spain and Italy, by trying and punishing those who opposed Church doctrine. Galileo: ○ Galileo's support for the heliocentric model led to conflict with the Catholic Church, which upheld the geocentric view. He was tried by the Inquisition and placed under house arrest.