BIOL 262 Ecology Exam 1 Review PDF

**BIOL 262 Ecology- Review for Exam I-** **Chapter 1- What is Ecology- Introduction** 1\. Be able to define ECOLOGY and the various terms associated with its study (population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere, abiotic, biotic). a. Ecology a. the study of the interactions between an...

**BIOL 262 Ecology- Review for Exam I-** **Chapter 1- What is Ecology- Introduction** 1\. Be able to define ECOLOGY and the various terms associated with its study (population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere, abiotic, biotic). a. Ecology a. the study of the interactions between an organism and its biological and physical environment b. from i. oikos = household\ logos = study\ oikonomia: household economics (management)\ oikologia: ecology; knowledge of how the household works b. population c. individuals of the same species living in a particular area d. emphasizes variation over time and space in the number, the density, and the composition of individuals c. community e. all populations of species living together in a particular area f. emphasizes the diversity and relative abundances of different kinds of organisms living together in the same place d. ecosystem g. One of more communities of living organisms interacting with their nonliving physical and chemical environments h. emphasizes the storage and transfer of energy and matter, including the various chemical elements essential to life e. biome i. large-scale biological communities shaped by the physical environment in which they are found f. biosphere j. all the ecosystems on earth k. Biosphere approach: concerned with the largest scale, including movements of air and water, and the energy and chemical elements thay contain over earth\'s surface g. abiotic l. nonliving environmental factors h. biotic m. living environmental factors 2\. How is ecology different from Environmental Science? a. environmental science: study of the impact of humans on the environment b. ecology: the study of the ***[interactions ] ***between an organism and its **biological  **and **physical **environment 3\. Understand the *Ribeioria* parasite life cycle. How did they (Kiesecker, 2002) show the parasite caused limb deformities in frogs, that pesticides did not cause the deformity but made frogs more susceptible to it? What is a Controlled Experiment and how was that used in figuring this out? a. 1\. Snail: parasite undergoes asexual reproduction to produce free-swimming cercariae\ 2. The cercariae infect tadpoles and form cysts (metacercariae) around their developing limb buds\ 3. The cysts interfere with normal limb development, causing limb deformities\ 4. The limb deformities make the amphibian more vulnerable to capture by predatory birds\ 5. The parasite matures to adulthood in the bird\'s body and reproduces sexually\ 6. Eggs in the bird\'s feces are released into water, where they hatch into free-swimming miracidia that infect the snail b. Small glass beads implanted in tadpoles to mimic cysts of ribeiroia ondatrae also produced deformities a. Controlled experiement: six ponds, all with ribeiroia, three with pesticide contamination\ Wood frog tadpoles were placed in 6 cages in each pond; 3 had mesh size that allowed parasites to enter b. Pesticides decrease frogs resistance to infection by parasites; tadpoles reared with pesticides had fewer white blood cells and higher rate of cyst formation c. Controlled experiment c. Experimental groups compared with control group that lacks the factor being tested 4\. Key Terms- Table 1.1. Adaptation, Natural selection, producer, consumer, net primary production (NPP), nutrient cycle). a. Adaptation a. trait or combination of characteristics of an individual that increases its evolutionary fitness (survival and reproduction) in a specific environment b. Natural selection b. the frequency of genes in a population can change becuase some phenotypes increase the chances for survival and reproduction c. Producer c. autotrophs; use energy from an external source (e.g., the sun) to produce their own food d. Consumer d. Heterotrophs e. get energy by eating other organisms or their remains e. Net primary production (NPP) f. Energy captured by produces minus amount lost as heat in cellular respiration f. Nutrient cycle g. producers -\> NPP -\> consumers 5\. Compare advantages and disadvantages of using field observation, field experiments, and lab experiments to test ecological hypotheses. a. Field observation a. survey and note; need to test whether something is the case b. Field experiments b. can\'t control conditions precisely c. Lab experiments c. not real life 6\. Describe the importance of hypotheses, controls, replication, and data analysis to the scientific process. See especially Ecological Toolkit 1.1 for ideas on replication. a. Hypotheses a. must be falsifiable b. informed, testable, thought b. Controls c. not changed, the standard d. treatment that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest c. Replication e. being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times f. replicate each treatment, assign treatments at random, analyze results using statistical methods g. reduce change that variables no under the control of the experimenter will unduly influence the results of the experiment h. divide a plot, repeat on larger scale d. Data analysis i. determine whether results are significant **Chapter 2- The Physical Environment** Weather vs. Climate - Weather (current conditions) - climate (long-term: based on averages and variation of weather over decades; includes daily and seasonal cycles, as well as yearly and decadal cycles; characterized by average conditions; but extremes also important; can contribute to mortality; determines geographic distribution What does climate affect and influence? - abiotic processes - periodic disturbances How is physical environment characterized? - by its variability over time 1. What is the Coriolis effect and how does it cause winds and ocean currents on the earth? How are causes for winds and currents related and how are they different? a. deflection of winds is associated with the rotation of Earth: to an observer on Earth\'s surface rotating around the planetary axis, the path of the wind appears curved i. Coriolis effect: winds in the Northern Hemisphere deflected to the right of their direction of travel (east) winds in the Southern Hemisphere deflected to the left (west) ii. Summer: ocean is less warm than the land, Winter: oceans retain more heat and this warmer iii. Water appears to move at an angle to the wind; to right in the North, and left in the South b. Causes for winds and currents related? iv. Water in the ocean can move vertically as well as horizontally v. Speed of ocean currents is usually only 2%-3% of the wind speed vi. Surface and deep layers of ocean water do not mix, due to differences in temperature and salinity vii. down swelling: water cools -\> ice forms -\> increases salinity -\> increases density -\> sinks to deeper layers; move toward the equator, carrying polar water toward the warmer tropical oceans viii. upwelling: ocean currents connect with surface currents 1. where deep ocean water rises to the surface 2. where prevailing winds blow nearly parallel to coastline, wind 3. Coriolis effect cause surface water to flow away from coast and deeper, colder waters rise to replace them 2. What causes [seasonal] temperature differences on the earth? How is this related to but different than what causes latitudinal differences in temperature? c. Seasonal temperature differences ix. The tilt of Earth\'s axis d. Latitudinal differences x. Tilt is important, but what truly causes latitudinal differences in temperature is how the sun\'s rays strike Earth\'s surface xi. Near the equator, rays strike perpendicularly xii. Toward poles, angle of sun\'s rays becomes steep, so same amount of energy is spread over a progressively larger area of Earth\'s surface xiii. Amount of atmosphere the rays must pass through increases toward the poles, more radiation is reflected or absorbed before it reaches surface xiv. Differential input of solar radiation not only establishes latitudinal gradient in temperature, but also driving force for climate dynamics xv. Movement of earth around sun + tilt of Earth\'s axis of rotation Tilt is 3. What drives altitudinal differences in temperature? What equation describes this and how does adiabatic lapse rate relate to this? a. Causes a. Elevation above sea levels has important influence on continental temperatures b. Higher elevations -\> fewer air molecules to absorb infrared energy radiating from Earth\'s surface c. temperature in atmosphere increases, but non on the surface d. Wind velocity increase with elevation, decrease in air temp b. Equation e. dT/dz = -g/Cp f. change in altitude = -(acceleration due to gravity(heat capacity at constant pressure g. Note driven by decrease in air pressure as altitude increases, causing rising air parcels to expand and cool down  c. Adiabatic lapse rate h. rate at which parcel or air cools as it rises without exchanging heat with its surroundings 3. How might the effects of a cool ocean current next to a warm land be different than the effects of a warm current next to a cool land? e. Summer: air over oceans is cooler and denser, air subsides and high pressure develops over oceans f. cooling effect on coastal region: milder temps, increased fog, less precipitation g. influence direction of prevailing winds h. Winter: air over continents is cooler and denser; high pressure develops over continents i. warming area; more precipitation; milder temp compared to inland 4. How do Hadley cells, Fernell cells and Polar cells cause differences in precipitation at 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° N&S latitudes? Be specific with high and low pressure conditions as you are able. j. Hadley cells: xvi. 30 degrees north: high pressure, dry in all seasons; summer wet, winter dry xvii. 0 degrees: low pressure, abundant precipitation in all seasons (tropics) xviii. 30 degrees south: summer wet, winter dry; high pressure, dry in all seasons k. Ferrell cells: xix. 60 degrees north: low pressure, ample precipitation in all seasons; winter wet, summer dry xx. Temperate zone xxi. 60 degrees south: winter wet, summer dry; low pressure, ample precipitation in all seasons l. Polar cells: xxii. 90 degrees north: high pressure, sparse precipitation in all seasons (polar zone) xxiii. 90 degrees south: high pressure, sparse precipitation in all seasons (polar zone) 5. How do average annual temperature and precipitation vary with latitude? m. Ocean currents xxiv. Air temperatures over land show greater seasonal variation, with warmer temperatures in summer and colder in winter, than those over oceans n. Distribution of land/water xxv. Smaller over oceans than over continental areas (seaonal changes) xxvi. Oceans provide moisture for cloud formation and precipitation xxvii. Maritime climate: coastal regions influenced by adjacent ocean; little variation, higher humidity o. Elevation xxviii. Higher elevations -\> few air molecules -\> less heat/increased wind velocity xxix. Mountains force air moving across them to rise, cools, forms clouds, enhancing local precipitation xxx. Differences in direction = differences in amount fo solar radiation; east: more solar radiation, creates upslope winds, clouds may form and generate thunderstorms xxxi. Night: ground surface cools, air is denser, higher frequency of subfreezing temp in low-lying areas xxxii. Face wind, have more precipiation; away from wind, less precipitation (rain-shadow) xxxiii. Shifts in vegetation shows rapie changes in climate p. Pressure cells: xxxiv. Influence movement of moist air from oceans to continents, as well as cloud formation q. Vegetation 6. Where is the driest region on earth and why is it located there? r. Atacama Desert, Pacific Coast of Chile xxxv. high pressure over South Pacific Ocean decreases precipitation along central west coast of South America xxxvi. blockage of air masses moving from the east by the Andes 7. What drives upwelling currents along coastal zones, especially in CA? s. Where deep ocean water rises to surface t. prevailing winds blow nearly parallel to a coastline -\> force of wind and Coriolis effect causes surface waters to flow away from coast, and deeper, colder waters rise to replace them 8. What is the "Great Ocean Conveyor Belt"? u. large system of interconnected surface and deep ocean currents that links the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans v. important means of transferring heat to the polar regions w. Water goes from shallow and warm to clod, dense, and salty 9. How are continental and maritime climates different? x. Continental xxxvii. areas centered in large continental land masses xxxviii. greater variation in daily and seasonal temperatures xxxix. limited to mid and high latitudes (primarily in temperate zones) xl. large seasonal changes in solar radiation accentuate effect of low heat capacity of land masses y. Maritime xli. coastal terrestrial regions influenced by adjacent ocean xlii. characterized by little variation in daily and seasonal temperature xliii. Often have higher humidity that region more distant from coast xliv. occur in all climate zones, from tropical to polar xlv. Temperate zones: influence of oceans on coastal climates tends to be accentuated on west coasts in the Northern Hemisphere because of the prevailing wind patterns 12\. What is albedo? - amount of solar radiation that a surface reflects - influenced by presence and type of vegetation as well as by soil and topography - Lower albedo = darker color, absorbs 13\. Describe the process of seasonal turnover in freshwater lakes. How is the change in density of water uniquely tied to this? - Fall: air above water surface cools, lake loses heat to atmosphere - eplimnion (summer surface layer, warmest, contains active populations of phytoplankton and zooplankton) cools, density increases until the same of below layers - Water at all depths of lake has same temp and density, winds blowing on surface lead to mixing of surface and deep layers (turnover) - Recycling of nutrients lost from epilimnion during summer - Moves oxygen into hypolimnion (below thermocline, stable layer of densest, colest water in the lake) and the sediments at lake bottom - Replenishment of nutrients at surface and of oxygen at the bottom, where it is used up by respiration of aerobic bacteria during summer, increases biological activity - Occurs again in spring when surface ice melts and lake water had uniform density once again\ \ \*Different densities/temperatures cause layering 14\. What are ENSO, NAO, PDO? How do they influence the climate of particular regions on earth? - El Nino Southern Oscillation - switch (or oscillation) in postions of high-pressure and low-pressure cells over the equatorial Pacific -\> weakening of the easterly trade winds that normally push warm water toward Southeast Asia - Underlying causes not well understood - Frequency: somewhat irregular, occurs at intervals of 3-8 years, lasts 18 months - Upwelling of deep ocean water off coast of South American ceases as easterly winds weaker or shift to westerly winds - La Nina - stronger-than-average phase of normal pattern - High pressure off coast of SOuth America - Low pressure in western Pacific - Follow El Nino, less frequent - Unusual climate conditions - unusually dry conditions in Malay Archipelago, other parts of Southeast Asia, and Australia - likelihood of fires increase - In United States + northern Mexico: increase precipitation (Nino) and drought (Nina) - North Atlantic Oscillation - climate variation in Europe, northern Asia, east coast of North America - similar to ENSO, but North Atlantic Ocean - Pacific Decadal Oscillation - affects climate around North Pacific - decreased salmon number - similar to ENSO in ways - can moderate or intensify effects of ENSO - felt in northwestern North America - can affect southern parts, Central America, Asia, and Australia droughts Chapter 3- Biomes ================= a. Identify the principle biomes as discussed in your text and notes. a. Tropical rainforests i. Between 10°N and 10°S ii. Abundant rainfall; may occur in one or two peaks associated with movement of the ITCZ iii. High biomass, high diversity---about 50% of Earth's species iv. Broadleaved evergreen and deciduous trees v. Nutrient poor soils (old & leached) vi. Light is a key vii. *Emergents* rise above the *canopy*. viii. *Lianas* (woody vines) and *epiphytes* use the trees for support. ix. *Understory* trees grow in the shade of the canopy, and shrubs and *forbs* occupy the forest floor. x. Threats 1. Logging, conversion to pasture and croplands. 2. ≈ 50% deforested. 3. Recovery uncertain: Soils are nutrient-poor, and recovery of nutrient supplies may take a very long time (gone with veg). b. Tropical seasonal forests and savannas xi. North and south of the wet tropics xii. Wet and dry seasons associated with movement of the ITCZ xiii. Shorter trees, deciduous in dry seasons, more grasses and shrubs xiv. This biome includes *tropical dry forests, thorn woodlands, and tropical savannas* xv. Fires promote *savannas---*grasses with intermixed trees and shrubs. i. In Africa, large herbivores---wildebeests, zebras, elephants, and antelopes---also influence the balance of grass and trees ii. \< 50% remain. iii. Human population growth major influence. iv. Large tracts converted to cropland and pasture. c. Deserts xvi. At high pressure zones, 30° N and S xvii. High temperatures, low moisture xviii. Low water availability = low plant abundance, Succulence, "annuals", deciduous, photosynthetic stems. xix. Low abundance, high diversity xx. Dangers 4. Agriculture and livestock grazing. 5. Agriculture, irrigation soil salinization. 6. Long-term droughts and unsustainable grazing can result in **desertification** d. Temperate grasslands xxi. 30° to 50° latitude xxii. Warm, moist summer & cold, dry winter xxiii. Grasses dominate; frequent fires and large herbivores such as bison xxiv. High soil fertility xxv. Dangers 7. Most central North America and Eurasia converted to [agriculture]. 8. Arid grasslands, [grazing] by domestic animals can lead to degradation and desertification. 9. Irrigation in some areas causes [salinization]. e. Temperate shrublands and woodlands xxvi. 30° to 40° latitude xxvii. Evergreen shrubs and trees xxviii. Mediterranean-type climates---cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers xxix. Fire common! xxx. Chaparral, Fynbos, Mediterranean (other names) xxxi. Evergreen leaves: active during cool, wet winters; lowers annual nutrient requirements. xxxii. *Sclerophyllous* leaves deter herbivores and prevent wilting (tough, often pokey). xxxiii. Regular fires (30- to 40-years) otherwise replaced by forests. xxxiv. Dangers: 10. Conversion: vineyards/crops, soils are nutrient-poor. 11. Urban development reduced biome (e.g., in southern California). More frequent fires reduce ability of the vegetation to recover, invasive grasses can move in. f. Temperate deciduous forests xxxv. 30° to 50° N, continental edges with enough rainfall for tree growth xxxvi. Winter deciduous xxxvii. Oaks, maples, and beeches occur everywhere in this biome xxxviii. Species diversity lower than tropical rainforests xxxix. Dangers: 12. agriculture - Fertile soils! (and climate) good for. Very little old-growth temperate forest remains. 13. As agriculture has shifted to the tropics, and great plains, temperate forests have regrown. 14. Shifts in species from grazing & agricultural nutrient depletion and invasive species such as chestnut blight. g. Temperate evergreen forests xl. 30° to 50° N and S, coastal, continental, and maritime zones xli. Temperate rainforests: high rainfall and mild winters; located on west coasts. xlii. Lower diversity than tropical and deciduous forests xliii. Leaves tend to be acidic, soils nutrient-poor xliv. Dangers 15. Extensive Logging: lumber and paper pulp. 16. Very little old-growth temperate evergreen forest remains. 17. In some areas, trees have been replaced with non-native species in uniformly aged stands. 18. Less frequent, more intense fires 19. Insect pests (western pinebark beetle) 20. Air Pollution h. Temperate rainforest xlv. Rainforests occur in temperate zones with high precipitation (over 5,000 mm, or 200 inches) and relatively mild winter temperatures. Here, understory tree ferns grow beneath the canopy trees at Horseshoe Falls in western Tasmania, Australia. i. Boreal Forests (Taiga) xlvi. 50° to 65° N (17% of earth's surface) xlvii. Long, severe winters (\ 65° N latitude, Arctic (also alpine) lii. Cold temperatures, low precipitation liii. Short summers with long days liv. Vegetation: sedges, forbs, grasses, low-growing shrubs, lichens, and mosses lv. Widespread permafrost lvi. Permafrost- solifluction sorting of soil materials according to texture. lvii. Polygons of soil form at the surface, with upraised rims and depressed centers (artic). lviii. Pingos - small hills as water that freezes in the subsurface permafrost zone, thrusting the soil above it upward. lix. Human settlements sparse; this biome has the largest pristine areas on Earth, but human influence is increasing as exploration and development of energy resources increases. lx. The Arctic has experienced significant climate change, with warming almost double the global average. k. Alpine tundra lxi. Alpine Different lxii. wind speeds higher, lxiii. solar radiation more intense lxiv. partial pressures of CO~2~ , O~2~ lower. lxv. Tropical different yet. Winter every night, summer every day. 2\. How do temperature and precipitation interact to control vegetation structure in each of the biomes and across different biomes at the same latitude? - Boreal Forests (extreme weather) - Tropical rainforests (light, climate conditions) - Grasslands and savannas (fire and elevations - Deciduous forests (fires) 3\. Be able to identify and understand climate diagrams from each of the principle biomes. a\. Tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests include northeast of South America, west central Africa, southeast Asian islands; and east Madagascar. Multiple levels of trees form the canopy of a rainforest in Malaysia. Lianas woody vines hang from trees in Ubud, Bali. Yanganbi, D R C 0 degrees, 487 meters. Average annual temperature 24.6 degree Celsius. Total annual precipitation 1,828 millimeters. The climate diagram is plotted for temperature from 0 to 30 degree Celsius and precipitation in millimeter from 0 to 300, versus the months from January to December. The month, temperature, precipitation is as follows. January, 25, 90; July, 24, 160; October, 25, 200; December, 25, 100. All values are estimated. b. Tropical seasonal rainforests and savannas  c. Deserts Deserts are distributed in northwest of North America; central western border and southeast border of South America; North and southwest of Africa; Gulf countries; Uzbekistan, southwest Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan; central west of Australia. Desert landscape of Sahara, South Africa shows barren land with thin layer of sand. There are large dry mountains in some places. Sonoran Desert is in bloom in Arizona, U S A. The climate diagram is plotted for Ouargla, Algeria, 31-degree North, 150 M. Average annual temperature 22.3 degree Celsius. Total annual precipitation is 39 millimeters. The diagram is plotted for temperature in degree Celsius from 0 to 40 and precipitation in millimeter from 0 to 80, versus months from January to December. The month, temperature, precipitation is as follows. January, 10, 2; April, 22, 2; July, 33, 0.1; November, 15, 8; December, 12, 6. All values are estimated. d. Temperate grasslands  e. Temperate shrublands and woodlands Temperate shrub lands and woodlands are found in central west border of North America; Spain; Portugal; north tip of South America; central Africa; south central Russia; and southwest Australian border. Fynbos with Protea species is in bloom in Hout Bay Harbor, South Africa. Coastal shrub lands are seen in Monterey, California, U S A. The climate diagram is plotted for Gerona, Spain, 41-degree North, 70 meters. Average annual temperature 16.7 degree Celsius. Total annual precipitation is 747 millimeters. The diagram is plotted for temperature in degree Celsius from 0 to 30 and precipitation in millimeter from 0 to 120, versus months from January to December. The month, temperature, precipitation is as follows. January, 9, 42; April, 12, 70; July, 25, 22; October, 19, 118; December, 9, 70. All values are estimated. f. Temperate deciduous forests  g. Temperate evergreen forests Temperate evergreen forests are distributed in northwest border and southeast border of North America; southwest border of South America; New Zealand; and southeast border of Australia. Araucaria or monkey puzzle trees are seen near the foot of the Andes Mountains, Argentina. A Douglas ¬fir tree or Pseudotsuga menziesii is found in Alberta, Canada. The climate diagram is plotted for Tamworth, Australia, 31-degree South, 405 meters. Average annual temperature 17.5 degree Celsius. Total annual precipitation is 672 millimeters. The diagram is plotted for temperature in degree Celsius from 0 to 30 and precipitation in millimeter from 0 to 80, versus months from January to December. The month, temperature, precipitation is as follows. January, 25, 70; May, 12, 44; June, 10, 60; December, 22, 72. All values are estimated. h. Boreal Forests  i. Tundra Tundras are found in North Canada, northern borders of Greenland, and northern border of Russia and Eurasia. Dwarf shrubs and shrubby willows in Arctic tundra below Denali National Park in interior Alaska. Fall colors are seen in the tundra of Greenland. The climate diagram is plotted for Olenek, Russia 73-degree N, 11 meter; Average annual temperature minus 14.3 degree Celsius; Total annual precipitation 184 millimeter. The diagram is plotted for temperature in degree Celsius from minus 40 to 20 and precipitation in millimeter from 0 to 40, versus months from January to December. The month, temperature, precipitation is as follows. January, minus 32, 10; August, 5, 38; December, minus 30, 10. All values are estimated. 6\. Define the terms lotic, lentic, benthic, hyporheic, pelagic, abyssal, hadal and differentiate their usage. - Iotic - Flowing water systems (streams, rivers) - Lentic - Still water occurs where depressions in the landscape fill with water - Deep, small surface tend to be nutrient-poor - Shallow lakes large surface area tend to be nutrient-rich - Benthic: - Organisms are bottom dwellers - Includes many kinds of invertebrates - Some feed on detritus (dead organic matter), others are predators - Hyporheic zone - Substratum below and adjacent to the stream - Pelagic - Open water - Dominated by plankton - Photic - Phytoplankton - Abyssal - Part of ocean where sunlight doesn't reach - Uniform environmental conditions - Hadal - Deep oceanic trenches - High pressure - Slightly warmer bottom temps - Accumulated organic matter 7\. What are 1^st^, 2^nd^, 3^rd^ order, etc. streams? - 1^st^ order: smallest streams - 2^nd^ order: smallest streams converging - 3^rd^ order: 2^nd^ orders converging 8\. What are some of the key ecological roles estuaries play? - Varying salinity provides good environment for valuable fish species in juvenile stage to avoid predators that are not as tolerant of changes in salinity - Enhances productivity - Provide nutrients **Chapter 4- Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water** 1. What does it mean to define optimal conditions (temperature and moisture) for a species? How does the actual distribution pattern relate to this distribution? (think about competition). a. Defining optimal conditions (temperature and moisture for a species) i. Most conducive to its functioning and carry out of physiological processes ii. Without stress, which results in a decrease in rate and potential for survival iii. Rates of physiological processes are greatest under a set of optimal conditions (temperature and water availability b. Actual distribution vs optimal distribution: lower due to competition for resources, stress, need for genetic variation 2. What are some adaptations that allow some amphibians (like wood frogs) to survive cold temperatures and conserve energy in winter? c. Adaptation: long-term, genetic response of a population to environmental stress that increases ecological success under stressful conditions d. Semi-frozen state, no heartbeat, blood circulation, or breathing e. Needle-like ice crystals (outside cells ice-nucleating proteins), glucose, glycerine f. Oxygen supply g. Ice formation pulls water from cells 3. Define acclimation. What are some ways organisms can acclimate to thermal extremes, both hot and cold? h. Acclimation: adjusting to stress through behavior or physiology; short-term reversible process i. Ways organism can acclimate to thermal extremes iv. Hot/cold 1. Plants: smaller, more pubescent leaves in summer than winter 2. Isozymes produced with different temperature optima (fishes, not common in animals) 3. Endotherms: thicker fur in winter and shedding fur when temperatures get warmer 4. What are adaptations? Ecotypes? j. Adaptations v. Long-term, genetic response of a population vi. Can vary among populations k. Ecotypes vii. Populations with adaptations to environments viii. Can eventually become separate species as populations diverge and become reproductively isolated 5. What are the upper and lower physiological temperature limits for most organisms? What sets these limits? How are the lethal limits different from functional limits? l. Upper limit for metabolically active multicellular plants and animals is about 50 degrees C (122 degrees F) m. Upper limited for archaea and bacteria that live in hot springs can function at 90 degrees C (194 degrees fahrenheit) n. Lower limit is tied to temp at which water in cells freezes, btwn -2 degrees Celsius and -5 degrees Celsius (28-23 F) o. Defined by range within which their cellular processes can function optimally p. Lethal limit: where irreversible damage occurs; set by stability of proteins and other biomolecules 6. Define the terms of the heat balance equation for plants What term can many animals add to this equation? (only a very few plants can add it) - Heat energy change of the plant = solar radiation + input of infrared radiation + output of infrared radiation + convective heat transfer + conductive heat transfer + heat transfer through evapotranspiration - If plant is warmer than surrounding air, convection and conduction are negative - If heat energy change is positive, the plant's temperature is increasing - If heat energy change is negative, the plant's temperature is decreasing - Animals add metabolic heat generation 7. How do plants modify these terms to maintain temperatures that allow physiological functions to continue? q. Adjusting energy inputs and outputs r. Leaves are most associated ix. Changes in rate of transpirational water loss x. Changes in leaf surface reflective properties (color) or in leaf orientation toward the sun can alter the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the plant xi. Changes in convective heat transfer can be accomplished by changing surface roughness xii. Transpiration, pubescence (lowers effectiveness of convective heat loss; trade-off) 8. How do ectotherms modify these terms? s. Through energy exchange with external environment t. Heat exchange between blood vessels and muscle activity u. Depends on size of animal v. Core can be warmer than surrounding body 9. How do endotherms modify these terms? What specific modifications allow some fish (tuna), some insects (honey bees, moths) functional partially like ecotherms? w. High demand for food to supply energy to support metabolic heat production x. Regulate through energy exchange with external environment (internal heat generation) y. Maintain constant basal metabolic rate over a range of environmental temperatures known as the thermoneutral zone xiii. Minor behavioral or morphological adjustments are sufficient for maintaining an optimal body temperature z. Lower critical temp: body temp begins to drop, triggering increase in metabolic heat production a. Tuna/bees: internal heat generation for metabolic function and defense (bees) 10. What are endotherms? Define the related terms thermoneutral zone, lower critical temperature, thermocritical zone, basal metabolic rate. b. Animals that rely primarily on internal heat generation (includes birds and mammals) c. Thermoneutral zone: when endotherms maintain a constant basal (resting) metabolic rate over a range of environmental temperatures d. Lower critical temperature: where body temperature begins to drop, as environmental temperature drops to a point at which heat loss is greater than metabolic heat production e. Basal metabolic rate: minimum amount of energy required by the body to maintain essential functions at rest 11. Differentiate between hibernation & torpor. f. Hibernation: torpor lasting several weeks during the winter, possible only for animals that have access to enough food and can store enough energy reserves g. Torpor: ability to lower critical temperature during cold periods by entering a state of dormancy 12. Understand osmolarity (Hypo, iso, hyper). Define the terms of the water balance equation below. Be able to evaluate why water moves from one place to another in plant and animal systems. h. Hypoosmotic: environment is less saline than organisms, water flows into to cells i. Ioosmotic: same salinity j. Hyperosmotic: more saline than an organism's cells (pull water from cells) a. Water potential = osmotic potential (-) + pressure potential + matric potential (-) b. Water always moves from higher water potential to lower water potential, following energy gradient 13. What specific modifications to plants and animals have to maintain water balance in dry environments? In freshwater environments? In saltwater environments? k. Dry environments xiv. Microorganisms: form dormant resistant spores, encasing themselves in protective coating that prevents water loss to the environment xv. Plants 4. Soil, higher water content and humidity than air 5. Take water from sources with water potential higher than their own 6. Adjust osmotic potential by synthezsizing solutes and taking up organic salts 7. Terrestrial: mycorrhizal fungi to take up water 8. Stomates at night 9. Shedding leaves 10. Thick waxy coating (cuticle) 11. Higher ratio of root biomass to biomass of stem and leaves xvi. Animals 12. Complexity of specialized organs (create areas of localized water and solute exchange as well as gradients of water and solutes within the animals body) 13. Can seek conducive environments to maintain favorable water and solute balance 14. Some lower evaporative water loss by having skin with a high resistance to water loss or by living in environments where they can compensate for high water losses with high water intake 15. Amphibians: develop specialized skin with higher resistance to water loss 16. Reptiles: thick skin 17. Kangaroo rats: rarely drink water l. Freshwater xvii. Gain water across gills xviii. Excrete excess water in urine xix. Replace solutes m. Saltwater xx. Exchange solutes with the surrounding seawater xxi. Exchange water and salts xxii. Excrete uring against osmotic gradient xxiii. Avoid drinking seawater *Chapter 5- Coping with Environmental Variation- Energy* 1. Differentiate autotrophs, chemoautotrophs, heterotrophs (including predators, detritivores, hemi- and holoparasites). a. Autotrophs: energy from sunlight; radiant and chemical energy captured -\> stored energy in carbon-carbon bonds b. Chemoautotrophs: energy from inorganic chemical compounds c. Heterotrophs: consumption of organic compounds i. Predators: capture and consume live prey ii. Detritivores: consume nonliving organic matter iii. Parasites and herb ivores: consume live hosts, but do not necessarily kill them iv. Parasitoides: have larvae that kill their hosts v. Holoparasites: have lost photosynthetic function and obtain energy by parasitism vi. Hemiparasites: photosynthetic but obtain some of their energy, as well as nutrients and water, from host plants 2. Differentiate C3, C4, and CAM photosynthesis. Why does water use efficiency increase from C3 CAM? Why does sensitivity to high concentrations (Low CO2 concentrations) decrease in the same order? Why does energetic efficiency decrease from C3 CAM? d. C3 vii. Calvin Cycle viii. CO2 joined to Rubisco (C6 molecule/ = 2 C3 (phosphoglycerate; 2/3 PGA) ix. CO2 + energy cap coupled in space and time x. Lack specialized pathways to make photosynthesis more efficient in stressful conditions xi. More affected by fluctuations as they rely directly on ambient CO2 xii. More efficient when CO2 is readily available due to not needing to expend as much energy e. C4 xiii. Ultimately the same as C3 xiv. Add C step in mesophyll 3C xv. Better affinity PEP + CO2 = OAA -\> CO2 via rubisco (Calvin) in bundle sheath cells where CO2 is much higher xvi. 1/3 to 1/6 rubisco, spatial segregation of CO2 uptake and energy capture, excels in N use efficiency, obligate f. CAM xvii. Same biochem as C4 xviii. Mechanism can concentrate CO2 at night, so less affected by fluctuations xix. Requires additional energy expenditure for storing and releasing CO2 at night, less efficient under conditions where CO2 is readily available xx. Rubisco in all PS cells xxi. CO2 captured by PEP carboxylase, organic acids accumulate, decarboxylated xxii. Then CALVIN, temporal segregation of CO2 uptake and energy capture xxiii. Excels in water use efficiency and CO2 capture in low CO2 environs xxiv. Separated by time; stomates closed at day (when risk of water loss is highest, open at night xxv. Facultative (switch between C3 and CAM photosynthesis) 3. Differentiate photorespiration from respiration in plants. What is thought to be an advantage of Photorespiration? g. Photorespiration: only in mesophyll plant cells, involves peroxisomes and mitochondria, depending on light xxvi. Oxygen competes for rubisco binding sites, drives PS backwards xxvii. High oxygen, low carbon dioxide, high temperature increase xxviii. May protect PS2 in high light, low moisture (stomata close); damage to photosynthetic machinery at high light levels h. Respiration: all plant cells, glucose + oxygen = energy + Co2 + H20g 4. Describe light compensation point and light saturation point for plants. How would these differ for a sun adapted vs. a shade adapted plant? What characteristics to plants and their leaves have in sun adapted plants? Shade adapted plants? i. Light compensation point: when there is enough light that the plant's photosynthetic CO2 uptake is balanced by its CO2 loss by respiration xxix. Sun adapted plant: light compensation point and saturation point is significantly higher than for shade-adapted plant xxx. Thicker leaves, smaller leaf size, high chlorophyll, thick cuticle j. Light saturation point: where photosynthetic rate levels off, typically reached at a level below full sunlight xxxi. Shade-adapted plant: light compensation point and saturation point is significantly lower than for a sun-adapted plant xxxii. Larger leaves, thinner leaves, lower chlorophyll content, more flexible leaf orientation 5. What general features of gut morphology are adaptive for herbivores vs. carnivores? k. Herbivores have a longer small intestine, bigger cecum (check notes) because of the extra cellulose they consume