Research Methods in Computer Science-1.pdf

Research Methods for Computer Science and Allied Information Technology (IT) Programmes Edited By Solomon Olalekan AKINOLA (PhD) Department of Computer Science University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria....

Research Methods for Computer Science and Allied Information Technology (IT) Programmes Edited By Solomon Olalekan AKINOLA (PhD) Department of Computer Science University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria. 1 Research Methods for Computer Science and Allied Information Technology (IT) Programmes Copyright © Akinola. S. Olalekan (PhD) Published by All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by Photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner. ISBN 2  Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge my God and all who have made me who I am today in academics. My special appreciation goes to my wife – ‘Kemi and my children – Esther, Marvellous, Eunice and Christiannah for their patience and continuing supports to make this task complete with pleasure. I sincerely acknowledge all the sources cited and used in compiling this book for students and tutors. 3  Dedication With love and deep sense of appreciation, this book is dedicated to the Almighty God And To all my students who had passed through me and those who will still pass through me in Computer Science. And To all those who will use this book for teaching or learning purposes. 4  GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK The study material provides adequate background information that is relevant for students to understand the concept of Research in Computing. Learning Objectives: 1. Have an understanding of how established techniques of research and enquiry are used to extend, create and interpret knowledge in Computer Science 2. Have a conceptual understanding sufficient to: (i) evaluate critically current research and advanced scholarship in Computing, and (ii) propose possible alternative directions for further work 3. Be able to deal with complex issues at the forefront of the academic discipline of Computing in a manner, based on sound judgements that is both systematic and creative; and be able to communicate conclusions clearly to both specialists and non-specialists In short, you should learn 1. to understand research and research methods in Computer Science and allied IT programmes; 2. to be able to plan, and conduct your own research, taking into account ethical, legal, and professional limitations; and 3. to be able to communicate your research results The contents of this book were obtained from diverse sources such as the web (specifically, researchbrains.com), personal experience, Internet to authors from other institutions in Nigeria. All authors are dully acknowledged. 5  TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Meaning and Importance of Research 1.1 Meaning of Research 1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy 1.3 Knowledge and Theories 1.4 Areas of originality (Cryer 1996) 1.5 Research Gain 1.6 Why do research? 1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science? 1.7 What Makes a Good Research? 1.8 Characteristics of research 1.9 The Dialectic of Research Chapter 2: Types and Classifications of Research 2.1 Types of research 2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research 2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches 2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research 2.2.1. Pure theory 2.2.2. Descriptive studies 2.2.3. Exploratory studies 2.2.4. Explanatory studies 2.2.5. Causal studies 2.2.6. Normative studies 2.2.7. Problem-solving studies 2.2.8. Development and Application studies 2.2.9. Action research 2.2.10. Case study 2.2.11. Survey 2.2.11.1 Key issues for questionnaires 2.2.11.2 Questionnaire design 2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research 2.2.12.1 Key elements of an experiment 2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research 2.2.13. Hypothesis based Study 2.2.14. Computer Simulation Chapter 3: Research Project’s Ideation 3.1 How to plan a research project 3.2 The Research Process 3.2.1 Previous Research Activities 3.2.2 Article Readings 3.2.3 Observations 3.2.4 Experience 3.2.4.1 How to use experience in research? 3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium 3.3 The Research Process 6 Chapter 4: The Research Proposal and Research Problem or Research Gap 4.1 The Research Proposal 4.1.1 Major Elements of a Research Proposal 4.1.2 Common mistakes in Proposal Writing 4.2 The Research Problem 4.3 Why is Research Problem Statement Important? 4.4 Characteristics of Research Problem 4.5 Identification of a Research Problem 4.6 Elements of a Research Problem 4.7 Sources of Research Problem 4.8 Formulation of a Research Problem 4.9 Common Mistakes in Research Formulation 4.10 Statement of Problem 4.11 How to Identify Research Gap? Chapter 5: Research Tools 5.1 Quantitative research tools 5.2 Qualitative research techniques and tools 5.3 Pre-testing 5.4 Electronic / Online Research Tools Chapter 6: The Research Methodology 6.1 Difference between Research Method and Methodology 6.2 Research Instruments in Computer Science (CS) 6.3 Difference between Framework and model 6.4 Areas of Research Focus 6.5 Guidelines on Research Methodology 6.6 Measurements’ Justification Chapter 7: Writing a General Research Report 7.1 Research Report 7.2 Features of Research Reports 7.3 Reasons for Writing 7.4 Mode of Communications 7.5 Research Report Format Chapter 8: Data Analysis 8.1 Data Analysis Plan 8.2 Quantitative Data Analysis 8.2.1 Measurement Scale and Different Statistical Techniques 8.3 Descriptive Statistics 8.4 Defining Intervals for Frequency Distributions 8.5 Summary Statistics and Frequency Distribution 8.6 Measure of Central Tendency 8.7 Measure of Dispersion 8.8 Choice of Measures 8.6.1 Alternative Measures 8.7 Other Descriptive Statistics 8.7.1 Sub-group Analysis 8.8 Statistical Tests 7  8.8.1 Finding Association/Correlation 8.8.2 Finding Causality: Group Comparison 8.8.3 Finding Causality: Prediction 8.9 Qualitative Data Analysis 8.10 Rigour in Qualitative Research 8.11 Validity and Reliability in Analysing Qualitative Research Chapter 9: Computer Science Research Project Writing 9.1 Nature of Computer Science Projects 9.2 Project Deliverables 9.3 Choosing a Project 9.3.1 Notes on Project Choice 9.4 Re-Use of Projects That Have Been Attempted In The Past 9.5 Project Supervision 9.6 Planning the project 9.7 Timings 9.8 Languages and Tools 9.9 Project Proposals 9.10 Research Project Format 9.10.1 Title page 9.10.2 Certification or Approval Page 9.10.3 Dedication Page 9.10.4 Acknowledgement 9.10.5 Table of Content 9.10.6 List of Tables/Figures/Symbols 9.10.7 Abstract 9.10.8 Chapter One (Introduction) 9.10.9 Chapter Two (Literature Review) 9.10.10 Chapter Three (Methodology) 9.10.11 Chapter Four (Results Presentation and Discussion) 9.10.12 Chapter Five (Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations) 9.10.13 References 9.10.14 Appendices Chapter 10: Suggested Computer Science Project Ideas Chapter 11: Reference Citations and Listings 11.1 Citation and Citation Style 11.2 How to Choose a Citation Style 11.3 APA Format Citation Guide 11.3.1 Core Components of an APA Reference: 11.3.2 APA Referencing Basics: Reference List 11.3.3 APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation 11.3.4 How to Cite Different Source Types 11.4 IEEE Style 11.4.1 In-text Citing 11.4.2 Creating a Reference List 11.4.3 Examples of IEEE citations for different materials: 8 Chapter 12: Guidelines for MSc / PhD Viva 12.1 Preparations Before Viva 12.2 During Viva Presentation 12.3 What Happens After Viva? 12.4 Some of the common questions asked during the viva Chapter 13: Journal or Conference Article writing 12.1 How to Write a Scopus Indexed Journal Article 12.2 Key Things to Note While Writing a Quality Article in a Standard Way 12.3 Precautions Needed To Be Taken Care of Before Writing a Paper 12.4 How to Identify a Potential Journal? 12.4.1 Methods for Identifying Potential Journal 12.5 Journal Citations, Indexing 12.5.1 The H-index 12.5.2 The i10-index 12.5.3 How to improve One’s Citation 12.5.3.1 When do I need to cite? 12.5.3.2 Improving Citation 12.6 Journal Impact Factor Chapter 14: Plagiarism in Research Papers 13.1 Meaning of Plagiarism in Research Papers 13.2 Types of Plagiarism 13.3 Steps to Ensure Plagiarism-Free Articles 13.4 Tips for Avoiding Plagiarism 13.5 Self-Plagiarism 13.5.1 Why is self-plagiarism wrong? 13.6 Paraphrasing and Quoting 13.7 Some Principles to Follow When Paraphrasing in Order to Avoid Avoid Plagiarism in Academic Writing 13.7.1 Strategies for paraphrasing 13.7.2 Tips on how to paraphrase a text without plagiarizing 13.8 Best Tools to Check Texts for Plagiarism Chapter 15: Ethical Considerations in Research 15.1 Basic Concepts: Ethics, Research and Research Ethics 15.2 Ethical Requirements of a Scientific Study 15.3 The Importance of Research Ethics 15.4 Types of Ethical Issues 15.5 Plagiarism 15.6 Research Misconduct 15.7 Examples of Ethical Failures 15.8 Codes of Ethics 15.9 Common Ethical Issues in Research and Publication 15.10 Getting Ethical Approval for a Study 9 Chapter 16: Patents 16.1 Meaning of a Patent? 16.2 How to file a Patent? 16.3 Patent Forms 65.3.1 Provisional filing 16.3.2 Complete filing 16.4 Why does One has to File Request for Examination? 16.5 Important two categories Chapter 17: How To Publish Research Papers 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Choosing the Right Journal for a Manuscript 17.3 What are the Instructions the Journal Cares About? 17.4 Number of Words for Contributions of Different Types 17.5 Craft the Title Carefully and Format it for the Target Journal 17.6 Notice Capitalization, Alignment, and Typography 17.7 The Cover letter 17.8 Main Framework of the Paper -The IMRAD structure 17.9 Write an Account of Your Research in 20-30 Paragraphs 17.9.1 How to Write the Introduction? 17.9.2 How to Write the Method Section 17.9.3 How to Write the Results Section? 17.9.4 How to Write the Discussion Section? Chapter 18: Open Access Publishing – A Researcher’s Perspective 18.1 What is open access? 18.2 Logic of open access 18.3 Why is open access gaining traction? 18.4 Why is all open access not predatory? 18.5 Ethical versus predatory open access 18.6 Why do we need to pay for open access? 18.7 How to support open-access publication financially? 18.8 Researchers and research institutions and open access 18.9 Types of open access 18.10 Plan S Chapter 19: Things to be Taken Care of while Publishing Research Paper 19.1 Good practice in referencing 19.2 Self-plagiarism and text recycling 19.3 How to avoid plagiarism? 19.4 Beware of ‘robotic’ paraphrasing, 1 19.5 How to spot predatory journals 19.6 ISSN has nothing to do with quality (or ’standard’) 19.6.1 What is an ISSN? 19.6.2 What is its role? 19.6.3 Searching Web of Science Master Journal list 19.6.4 Journal impact factor: Quality criteria & impact criteria for Journals 19.7 Alternatives to impact factor 19.7.1 Eigen factor 19.7.2 SCImago Journal Rank 10 19.7.3 H-index: impact of an individual scientist 19.8 Spread the work 19.9 Key takeaways References for Further Readings Appendix: Fast Responding Scopus Indexed Journals 11 Chapter 1: Meaning and Importance of Research Introduction Research means close or careful study of a phenomenon, objects or behaviour of people including animals. It is applying a scientific approach to the studying of a phenomenon, be it abstract or concrete. In this Chapter, we shall critically examine the meaning and importance of research. Learning Outcomes When you have studied this Chapter, you should be able to explain: 1.1 Meaning of Research 1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy 1.3 Knowledge and Theories 1.4 Research originality 1.5 Research Gain 1.6 Why do research? 1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science? 1.7 What Makes a Good Research? 1.8 Characteristics of research 1.9 The Dialectic of Research 1.1 Meaning of Research The word ‘Research’ is composed of two words: Re + Search. It means to search again. So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing field of knowledge. In essence, research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem. According to Wikipedia, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research) Research is an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws, or theories. It is a collection of information about a particular subject. The definition derives from the Middle French and the literal meaning is “to investigate thoroughly”. From Dictionary Definitions: Research used as a Noun is defined as: 1. Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry. 2. Close, careful study. 3. The pursuit of knowledge, as by reading, observation, or research. 4. The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions (Fowler et al., 2011). 12 Research used as a Verb is defined as: 1. To study (something) thoroughly so as to present in a detailed, accurate manner. (Example: researching the effects of acid rain.) 2. To apply one’s mind purposefully to the acquisition of knowledge or understanding of (a subject). 3. To inquire into; investigate. According to Higher Education Funding Council for England, Research is defined as Original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding, including (i) work of direct relevance to the needs of commerce and industry and to the public and voluntary sectors (ii) scholarship (research infrastructure) (iii) the invention and generation of ideas, images, performances and artefacts including design, where these lead to new or substantially improved insights; (iv) the use of existing knowledge in experimental development to produce new or substantially improved materials, devices, products and processes, including design and construction. 1.2 Knowledge Hierarchy Knowledge is a particular level in a hierarchy of data transformations: 1. Data 2. Information 3. Knowledge 4. Wisdom Data are statements accepted at face value (a ‘given’) and presented as numbers, characters, images, or sounds. A large class of practically important statements are measurements or observations of variables, objects, or events. Data in a computing context are in a form which can be assessed, stored, processed, and transmitted by a computer Data on its own has no meaning, only when interpreted by some kind of data processing system does it take on meaning and becomes information. For example: The human genome project has determined the sequence of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA. Identifying base pairs produces data; while information would tell us what they do! Knowledge, according to Dawson (2005), is a higher level understanding of things. The knowledge represents our understanding of the ‘why’ instead of the mere ‘what’. Knowledge deals with interpretation of information in the form of rules, patterns, decisions, models, ideas, etc. In natural sciences, understanding ‘why’ is too ambitious most of time; understanding ‘how’ is usually what we aim for. In other areas, understanding ‘how’ is trivial, understanding ‘why’ is challenging. And according to Davenport et al. (1998), Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection. It is a high-value form of information that is ready to apply to decisions and actions. This means knowledge must be useful! 13 Both knowledge and information consist of true statements, but knowledge is information that has a purpose or use (information plus intentionality) 1.3 Knowledge and Theories Scientific knowledge is often organized into theories. A theory is formulated, developed, and evaluated according to the scientific method. Given enough experimental support a theory can be (a scientific) fact. Wikipedia asserts that a theory is a logically self-consistent model or framework describing the behaviour of a certain natural or social phenomenon, thus either originating from observable facts or supported by them. Knowledge are formulated, developed, and evaluated according to the scientific method. A body of (descriptions of) knowledge is usually only called a theory once it has a firm empirical basis, that is, it 1. is consistent with pre-existing theory to the extent that the pre-existing theory was experimentally verified, though it will often show pre-existing theory to be wrong in an exact sense, 2. is supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation, ensuring that it probably is a good approximation if not totally correct. 3. makes (testable) predictions that might someday be used to disprove the theory, and 4. has survived many critical real world tests that could have proven it false, 5. is a/the best known explanation, in the sense of Occam’s Razor, of the infinite variety of alternative explanations for the same data. When we say Research is an original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding, by originality we mean, “Doing something that has not been done before”. Dawson (2005) states that there is no point in repeating the work of others and discovering or producing what is already known. Theories make predictions, which need to be tested. The people performing those tests are neither infallible nor trustworthy. Tests need to be repeated and results replicated. 1.4 Research Originality (Cryer, 1996) Originality in research covers the following aspects: 1. Exploring the unknown: Investigate a field that no one has investigated before 2. Exploring the unanticipated: Obtaining unexpected results and investigating new directions in an already existing field 3. The use of data: Interpret data in new ways 4. Tools, techniques, procedures, and methods: Apply new tools/techniques to alternative problems. Try procedures/methods in new contexts. 1.5 Research Gain By our definition, research is an original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This means research must contribute to the world’s body of knowledge and understanding (in contrast to adding to the researcher’s knowledge and understanding). 14 The most important element of research is to find something new. It could be new theory, new solution, new application, new dimension or new description that has been produced at the end of the research period. There are all sorts of explanation and conceptual views that emphasize the significance of "new thing" in research. On the other hand, if we develop a system, what would be the most important factor to consider? The answer would probably be" a good system". A good system is defined as a system that meets the user's requirement. It does not necessarily use the most advanced theoretical framework but as long as it works and the clients are happy then we have a good system. 1.6 Why do research? Getting into research for the wrong reason is the most common mistake that someone can do. As a researcher one need to refine the real intention of doing research. The goals need to be well understood and revise from time to time so that it will be relevant to him and the people around. So, what are the reasons to get into research? Consider the following perspectives of a “Researcher”: 1) So that I will have time to do some other things. This is definitely very wrong. If one intends to do research "part-time" or "whenever I have a free time", then you are planning for trouble. Your commitment to pursue research activities has to be a full- time effort. Although a researcher is free from rigid schedule; it does not mean that nothing is expected out of him. The freedom to set own timetable is to allow a researcher to "grow" on his own and produce a good, unbiased and undisputable results. 2) Because I have to, this is part of the course. The idea of having to conform with somebody else's needs and expectations without your own interest is the first thing to avoid. A long and hard demand from research environment will not last if you have no personal determination. There might be a promotion involved or a new career move; whatever it is, set your goal and go for it. 3) Looks good in my CV. It really prevails because research achievements represent a high degree of excellence. The ability to find new things or explain new dimensions would be attractive for any field of work; from academic to corporate management. 4) I can keep my present job. The fact that you keen to keep your job gives an indication that doing research or going for a research degree is not your priority. It is a mistake to pursue with this on your mind. A choice has to be made and at the end you might compromise between your job and your intention to do research. Things can be worked out but you have to open the options for any circumstances. 5) I have all the data ready. This statement sounds right because there is a word "data" in it, which is directly connected to research. However, having data without specific research objectives would be meaningless. The data has to be collected according to what we want to do in the research (research objectives) and the answer that we are seeking (research questions). The data might be from your previous research of similar theme or from a database related to your topic. These are considered secondary data for reviews and cannot be used for analysis. The other reasons are: 1) I am interested in the area. 2) I have done this before and now I would like to explore more. 3) I have come to know that the subject is so challenging 4) My job is related to this area of research. 15 5) My supervisor is an expert in this. All of these reasons reflect the intentions and the amount of effort that one will be willing to put forward to pursue research activities. The intention or aim for doing research has to be reviewed from time to time to avoid it from dying out. 1.6.1 Why Do Research in Computer Science? Research in any discipline is a hard task but when it comes to Computers and IT, it becomes even more daunting task. Still there are very few researchers in Computer Science and this is the reason why PhD in the profession is so important and crucial for a successful career. Research lets us learn a set of work skills that we can’t get from classes. It includes  Significant writing task  Independent/unstructured work task  Doing something real (Experimental support to prove the concept) Research helps us to become a true expert in respective computer field. Research in computer science is not only helping the academia but is helping industries also. Summarily we undertake research: To investigate some existing situation or problem. To provide solutions to a problem. To explore and analyse more general issues. To construct or create a new procedure or system. To explain a new phenomenon. To explain a new phenomenon. To generate new knowledge. A combination of two or more of any of the above. (Hussey and Hussey 1997) 1.7 What Makes a Good Research? The main goal of any research is "to contribute something new to the current body of knowledge". Selecting a “right” research problem is the key to a good research project. With collaborative efforts from your supervisor and support from the faculty, the research will be equipped with momentum and take you to the right direction. It is difficult to pin point the criteria for good research because it depends on the type and objective of the research. One research may be good for one group of people but useless for the other. But to make things a lot easier, there is a list of criteria below that can be used to reflect a good research. 1) Relevant to Community at Large. The problem that is chosen to explore must be important and relevant to a larger community. 2) Inspires the Researcher. It is important for the topic to be the one that motivates the researcher in order to address it with intense passion to authentically engage in the goal of reasoned decision making. 3) Challenging. The research must challenge the researcher in order to question his/her own assumptions about teaching, learning, literacy, and change; i.e., the research challenges to learn. 16 4) Support Multiple Perspectives. The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb is that a good problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a wide range of audience. Everyone can relate to the topic and contribute their ideas that might shape the analysis and findings of the research. 5) Researchable. Topics that fall into this criteria are the ones that one can deal with in one way or another. The data can be collected as scheduled, the equipment are available to the researcher, either within the department or somewhere that he can easily go whenever he needs them and the topic is proved by previous researchers to be researchable. 6) Doable. It can be completed within a specified time period and material constraints. 7) Not Too General, Yet Not Too Narrow. It is not too general; that would result in a multitude of sub-questions; yet, not too narrow; that would rule out the emergence of other possibilities. 1.8 Characteristics of research: A research: (i) demands a clear statement of a problem (ii) requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in the hope that one will come across a solution) (iii) builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings (iv) Demands new data to be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they answer the research question(s) 1.9 The Dialectic (Contention or Opposing Views) of Research The highest level of logical argument can be seen in the structure of debate within a particular field. Each contribution to that debate falls into one of three categories: 1. Thesis This presents the original statement of an idea. However, very few research contributions can claim total originality. Most research borrows ideas from previous works, even if that research has been conducted in another discipline. 2. Antithesis This presents an argument to challenge a previous thesis. Typically, this argument may draw upon new sources of evidence and is typically of progress within a field. 3. Synthesis This seeks to form a new argument from existing sources. Typically, a synthesis might resolve the apparent contradiction between a thesis and an antithesis. 17 A good example of this form of research dialectic is provided by the debate over prototyping. For example, some authors have argued that prototypes provide a useful means of generating and evaluating new designs early in the development process (thesis), (Fuchs, 1992). Others have presented evidence against this hypothesis by suggesting that clients often choose features of the prototyping environment without considering possible alternatives (antithesis) (Hayes and Jones, 1989). A third group of researchers have, therefore, developed techniques that are intended to reduce bias towards features of prototyping environments (synthesis) (Gravell and Henderson, 1996). Research in a field progresses through the application of methods to prove, refute and reassess arguments in this manner. Summary In this Chapter, you have been introduced to the concept of research, the meaning and importance. Reasons for conducting researches were also explored in the Chapter. Now answer the following questions. Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1. What is research? Attempt to explain your answer in different contexts. 2. What are the main reasons for conducting a research? 3. What are the characteristics of research? 18 Chapter 2: Types and Classifications of Research Introduction Research is a systematic search for information and new knowledge. It covers topics in every field of science and perceptions of its scope and activities are unlimited. In this Chapter, the various types and classifications of research are discussed. Learning Outcomes When you have studied this Chapter, you should be able to explain: 2.1 Types of research 2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research 2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches 2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research 2.2.1. Pure theory 2.2.2. Descriptive studies 2.2.3. Exploratory studies 2.2.4. Explanatory studies 2.2.5. Causal studies 2.2.6. Normative studies 2.2.7. Problem-solving studies 2.2.8. Development and Application studies 2.2.9. Action research 2.2.10. Case study 2.2.11. Survey 2.2.11.1 Key issues for questionnaires 2.2.11.2 Questionnaire design 2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research 2.2.12.1 Key elements of an experiment 2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research 2.2.13. Hypothesis based Study 2.2.14. Computer Simulation 2.1 Types of Research The classical broad divisions of research are: 2.1.1 Basic and Applied Research The basic or pure research is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies to deal with major problems. A pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without regard for a specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall concepts. 19 On the other hand, applied research is necessary to identify priority problems and to design and evaluate policies and programmes that will deliver the greatest benefit, making optimal use of available resources. An applied research is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a practical question. 2.1.2 Quantitative and Qualitative researches Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology etc. and was concerned with investigating things which we could observe and measure in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers. This process is referred to as “quantitative” research. Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. They were interested in studying human behaviour and the social world inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in trying to explain human behaviour in simply measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or how many people behave in a certain way but they do not adequately answer the “why” and “how” questions. Research which attempts to increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research. Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social, and in our case, computing phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about: Why people behave the way they do How opinions and attitudes are formed How people are affected by the events that go on around them How and why cultures have developed in the way they have Summarily, Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? How? In what way? while Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: How much? How many? How often? To what extent? etc. Summarily, quantitative research methods:  Are associated with measurements (on numeric scales)  Do Stem from natural sciences  Are used to test hypotheses or create a set of observations for inductive reasoning  Accuracy and repeatability are of vital importance Qualitative research methods:  Involve case studies and surveys  Do stem from social sciences  Are concerned with increasing understanding of an area, rather than an explanation 20   Repeatability is usually a problem 2.1.3 Primary and Secondary Research Primary research refers to research that involves the collection of original data specific to a particular research project; for example, through using research methods such as questionnaires or interviews. Secondary research refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for example census or archive data. 2.2 Classifications of Computer Science Research 2.2.1. Pure theory: Pure theoretical research involves developing theories and working on their consequences, with regard to experimentation or application. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data. 2.2.2. Descriptive studies: This involves reviewing and evaluating existing theories, including describing the state of the art, comparing predictions with experimental data. Descriptive research describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the issue of what is happening, or how much of it has happened, rather than why it is happening There is also Predictive Research which forecasts future phenomena, based on the interpretations suggested by explanatory research. 2.2.3. Exploratory studies: This involves investigating an ‘entirely’ new area of research, exploring a situation or a problem. Exploratory research takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a phenomenon. This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation. Research is exploratory when we use no earlier model as a basis of our study. The most usual reason for using this approach is that we have no other choice. Normally we would like to take an earlier theory as a support, but there perhaps is none, or all available models come from wrong contexts. (http://www2.uiah.fi/projects/metodi/177.htm). 2.2.4. Explanatory studies: This involves explaining or clarifying some phenomena or identifying the relationship between things. This type of research is involved in explaining why something happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables. 2.2.5. Causal studies: This involves assessing the causal relationship between things. 2.2.6. Normative studies: This involves producing a theory of design (or of other development) like recommendations, rules, standards, algorithms, advices or other tools for improving the object of study. 2.2.7. Problem-solving studies: This involves resolving a problem with a novel solution and/or improving something in one way or another. 21 2.2.8. Development and Application studies: This involves developing or constructing something novel. 2.2.9. Action research: This type of research pursues action (or change) and understanding at the same time. It continuously alternates between action and critical reflection, while refining methods, data and interpretation in the light of the understanding developed in the earlier cycles. Example: Reflective teaching. 2.2.10. Case study: This research involves an in-depth exploration of a single situation. It usually generates a large amount of (subjective) data. It should not merely report the data obtained or behaviour observed but it attempts to generalize from the specific details of the situation observed. Example: Case study of open source software development. 2.2.11. Survey: Survey research is usually undertaken using questionnaire or interview technique. The design of the questionnaire and interview is very important! Determination of sample size and sample elements is also important. Example: Survey on the popularity or use of programming languages. 2.2.11.1 Key issues for Questionnaires (i) Determining the target audience (ii) Determining the most appropriate medium, paper or electronic via Google Form (iii)Achieving an acceptable response rate (iv) Ensuring anonymity if necessary (v) Obtaining additional information about the respondents 2.2.11.2 Questionnaire Design  Layout and size (not too long and must be uncluttered)  Types of question (1) Quantity or information. Example: How many hours... (2) Classification; example: Gender (3) List or multiple choice; example: How do you keep informed? (4) Scale; example: How easy is... (5) Ranking; example: Rank in order of importance (6) Complex grid or table; example: Multiple classifications (7) Open-ended; example: What do you think about... (8) Close-ended: example: from the following, choose one option that speaks of your behaviour 2.2.12. Experimental / Empirical Research This type of research involves investigation of causal relationships using test control by the researcher. It is usually performed in development, evaluation and problem solving projects. An example is evaluation of processor performance. To understand the nature of information processes, computer scientists must observe phenomena, formulate explanations and theories, and test them. Experiments are used both for theory testing and for exploration. Experiments test theoretical predictions against reality. 22 Empirical research supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical = observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning). Nevertheless, there is always an element of uncertainty in experiments and tests as well: To paraphrase Edsger Dijkstra, an experiment can only show the presence of bugs (flaws) in a theory, not their absence. Scientists are keenly aware of this uncertainty and are therefore ready to disqualify a theory if contradicting evidence shows up. A good example of theory falsification in Computer Science (CS) is the famous Knight and Leveson experiment, which analyzed the failure probabilities of multiversion programs. Conventional theory predicted that the failure probability of a multiversion program was the product of the failure probabilities of the individual versions. However, John Knight and Nancy Leveson observed that real multiversion programs had significantly higher failure probabilities. In fact, the experiment falsified the basic assumption of the conventional theory, namely that faults in different program versions are statistically independent. Experiments are also used in areas to which theory and deductive analysis do not reach. Experiments probe the influence of assumptions, eliminate alternative explanations of phenomena, and unearth new phenomena in need of explanation. In this mode, experiments help with induction: deriving theories from observation. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are a good example of the explorative mode of experimentation. After ANN having been discarded on theoretical grounds, experiments have demonstrated properties better than those theoretically predicted. Researchers are now developing better theories of ANN in order to account for these observed properties. Experiments are made in many different fields of CS such as search, automatic theorem proving, planning, NP-complete problems, natural language, vision, games, neural nets/ connectionism, and machine learning. Furthermore, analyzing performance behavior on networked environments in the presence of resource contention from many users is a new and complex field of experimental CS. In this context it is important to mention Internet. Yet, there are plenty of computer science theories that haven’t been tested. For instance, functional programming, object-oriented programming, and formal methods are all thought to improve programmer productivity, program quality, or both. Yet, none of these obviously important claims have ever been tested systematically, even though they are all many years old and a lot of effort has gone into developing programming languages and formal techniques. Some fields of Computing such as Human Computer Interaction and parts of Software Engineering have to take into consideration even humans (users, programmers) in their models of the investigated phenomena. It is therefore resulting in a “soft” empirical approach more characteristic for Humanities and Social Sciences, with methodological tools such as interviews and case studies. 2.2.12.1 Key Elements of an Experiment (i) A precise hypothesis that the experiment will confirm or refute (ii) A completely specified experimental system, which will be modified in some systematic way to elicit the effects predicted by the hypothesis (iii)Quantitative measurement of the results of modifying the experimental system (iv) Use of controls to ensure that the experiment really tests the hypothesis 23  (v) Analysis of the measured data to determine whether they are consistent with the hypothesis (vi) Report of procedures and results so that others can replicate the experiment. Repeatability ensures that results can be checked independently and thus raises confidence in the results. 2.2.12.2 Stages of Empirical Research This involves: (1) Hypothesis Generation. This explicitly identifies the ideas that are to be tested by the research. (2) Method Identification. This explicitly identifies the techniques that will be used in order to establish the hypothesis. This is critical because it must be possible for one’s peers to review and criticize the appropriateness of the methods that you have chosen. The ability to repeat an experiment is a key feature of strong empirical research. (3) Result Compilation. This presents and compiles the results that have been gathered from following the method. An important concept here is that of statistical significance; whether or not the observed results could be due to chance rather than an observable effect. (4) Conclusion. Finally, the conclusions are stated either as supporting the hypothesis or rejecting it. In the case that results do not support a hypothesis, it is important always to remember that this may be due to a weakness in the method. Conversely, successful results might be based upon incorrect assumptions. Hence, it is vital that all details of a method are made available to peer review. 2.2.13. Hypothesis-based Study Sometimes the object of study is already well known and we just want to investigate its behaviour in a specific situation. In such a situation we can choose to construct a hypothesis, i.e. an expectation of the behaviour of the object, or a preliminary answer to the question that we are studying. We are usually free to decide if we want to use one or not. E.g., if we want to learn if x really equals two times y, we can set as your hypothesis x = 2y During the project we then collect empirical data which allows us to test the hypothesis and see if it is true or not. Hypotheses are always based on analytic models, and they are often causal. They are always accurately stated and quite often stated as an arithmetic model, like for example y = f(x) where x = the independent variable, y = the dependent variable. 24 The above hypothesis includes only one variable of each type; there are, however, usually more of them in real research projects. (Source: Pentti Routio, 2007) If we choose to use a hypothesis, we should plan the logic around it in the way that Bunge (1967, 9) explains: 1. Ask well formulated and fruitful questions. 2. Devise both grounded and testable hypotheses to answer the questions. 3. Derive logical consequences of the assumptions. 4. Design techniques to test the assumptions; test the techniques for relevance and reliability. 5. Execute the tests. 6. Interpret the results. 7. Evaluate the truth claims of the assumptions and the fidelity of the techniques; determine the domains in which the assumptions and the techniques hold. It is seldom - perhaps never - possible to reach an absolute certitude when verifying a hypothesis. This is the case especially when the hypothesis is intended to hold true anywhere, i.e. also for the cases that are similar to those that have been examined. Therefore most modern researchers accept in practice the idea that when speaking of 'truth' of a hypothesis, they actually mean verisimilitude or credibility. This distinction, nevertheless, has no decisive consequences in practice: we can use 'credible' findings exactly in the same way as 'true' findings. 2.2.14. Computer Simulation In recent years, computation, which comprises computer-based modeling and simulation, has become the third research methodology within CS, complementing theory and experiment. Computational Science has emerged, at the intersection of Computer Science, applied mathematics, and science disciplines in both theoretical investigation and experimentation. Computer simulation makes it possible to investigate regimes that are beyond current experimental capabilities and to study phenomena that cannot be replicated in laboratories, such as the evolution of the universe. In the realm of science, computer simulations are guided by theory as well as experimental results, while the computational results often suggest new experiments and theoretical models. In engineering, many more design options can be explored 25 through computer models than by building physical ones, usually at a small fraction of the cost and elapsed time. Summary In this Chapter, you have been introduced to the different classifications and types of research. Theoretical as well as empirical researches were explained. Now answer the following questions. Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative forms of research. 2. When do we apply experimental / empirical research? What are the key elements and stages involved in experimental researches? 26 Chapter 3: Research Project’s Ideation Introduction Research by definition is a process. It is the systematic inquiry that involves:  the collection of data;  documentation of vital information, and  analysis and interpretation of that said data and/or information  following given guidelines and suitable methodologies specified by a professional body or academic discipline. In this Chapter, the various methods for conceiving ideas for research projects are explored. Learning Outcomes When you have studied this Chapter, you should be able to explain: 3.1 How to plan a research project 3.2 The Research Process 3.2.1 Previous Research Activities 3.2.2 Article Readings 3.2.3 Observations 3.2.4 Experience 3.2.4.1 How to use experience in research? 3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium 3.3 The Research Process 3.1 How to Plan a Research Project While there is no one ‘best’ way to design research, planning a research involves four general steps: 1. Orienting oneself to knowledge-creation; 2. Defining the research question; 3. Reviewing previous research on this question and then 4. Selecting and analysing relevant data to formulate answers Research planning is always an iterative process: as one moves through the four steps, it is normal to circle back to earlier points and revise. Expect the research question in particular to undergo multiple rounds of refinement as we learn more about our topic, the previous research done on that topic, and the possibilities for us to carry out an analysis of our own. Good research questions tend to beget more questions. This can be frustrating for those who want to get down to business right away. We should try to make room for the unexpected: this is usually how knowledge advances. Many of the most significant discoveries in human history have been made by people who were looking for something else entirely. 27 3.2 Sources of Research Ideas Ideas come and go. In a minute, one might have the whole picture in his mind and the next minute it's gone. That's why it is important for the researcher to keep a small notepad with him all the time to scribble anything that might come to mind. Ideas could come from various sources, such as  Previous research activities  Article Readings  Observations  Personal Experience  Discussions/Colloquium 3.2.1 Previous Research Activities Previous research activities can trigger an idea. This may particularly happen in one’s second research project. It could be a continuation from the first one just completed. Usually a completion of one research will open up several ideas for future research. A young researcher may look at the section on past research papers on “Recommendations for Future Works”, at the end of the paper. The contents may trigger the researcher to explore the previous research recommendations. 3.2.2 Article Readings Doing a lot of reading of research articles can also help one to come up with a few questions that will lead to a research topic. Things to read include report or articles related to one’s interests. Reading an article can sometimes be so difficult to understand. It is normal to feel that way because the content of the article could be full with technical jargons and mathematical formula. One will be easily put off after a few paragraphs. In understanding an article or more appropriately called technical paper, one has to go through several phases of reading: (1) Surface reading. We read through the article but leave the terms or parts that we don't understand. Go through it several times and see whether what the article is trying to tell the reader can be figured out. If at this phase one has understood the article, then it is great; it could be that he/she is the one who have the knowledge or the article is well- written. Either way, one is off to a good start because, usually that is not the case. (2) Technical reading. In this type of reading, we read through the article and stop at the point where we have started losing the picture. Then we try to go back a few lines and pin-point the words, phrases or theories that were not understood. Dictionary can be flipped through if we are not sure the meaning of a certain word or phrases. Refer to a book to get further explanation of the theory stated in that article. Get onto the internet for some other explanation or description of similar ideas. Somehow we have to get the thing cleared out before proceeding further into the article. This process could last an hour, a day or even a week; but at the end of it we will be satisfied and amazed of the new knowledge that we have just discovered. (3) Guided reading. This is like a bed-time story reading where one sits with his/her supervisor/lecturer and go through the article paragraph by paragraph. The supervisor will stop and explain at places where the narration is too simplistic. Sometimes we lack 28  the background to fully understand one specific paragraph and a little help from someone knowledgeable is required. The phases described above do not have to be followed step by step; but a guideline to follow if one way of reading does not help much. Reading is very important in doing research. The habit to read whatever comes handy is essential as ideas for the next move in research might be available. Lack of reading will result in poor understanding of the current needs and trends in our area of research and minimize our ability to argue and defend our ideas. A problem may arise, when we have read a lot of books, articles and journals, that we might lose track of our readings. A few tips to manage our readings are as follows: (1) We must try to keep a copy of the article read or planning to read. We should organize them properly so that we can get them again later in a folder. (2) If part of a book looks very important to us, we get a copy of this part only and write down the identification of the book somewhere at the back for future reference. (3) Write a summary of the important aspect of the paper read: the title, authors, publisher, date, aim, methodology adopted, main results, strengths and weakness of the paper. As you are doing this, you are building up your Chapter Two on Literature Review. In writing the summaries of each of the publications try to avoid unnecessary plagiarism. 3.2.3 Observations A good idea may pop up from our own observations of a situation. This could happen at a local fair or workshops. A good documentary program on TV could also give us some ideas on what people have done on the subject. For instance, a parking problem at our faculty could open a whole series of research for someone that might be interested to solve it according to his area of expertise. Our eyes should be kept opened as the ideas could be everywhere. Those are informal observations that could lead to a research question that may start up a full blown research project. If one determined that there is an issue in an organisation that could be used to start a research, a formal observation can be arranged to get the whole picture. This formal observation will be later on known as "qualitative research" and is one type of research that observation is the only way to go crack a tough research question. However, one can also use this as a preliminary step to establish a need for a subsequent research (or a quantitative research). When we observe a situation, what we actually do is looking at the other end of the spectrum; such as a faulty system, etc. What we can observe is usually the product of bad design or poor foundation and those are the most difficult aspect to be analysed. Since this is the other end, we have to trace backward until we find the root of the problem. This then will be our motive for a research. 3.2.4 Personal Experience Experience refers to the knowledge that one might have that might be used in a research project. This could be related to one’s line of work where the problems could occur over and over again. The area of management, for example, could use some new techniques all the time as people and the surroundings are rapidly changing. Being a manager or at senior managerial position would trigger some ideas on how to improve the efficiency of the management. There are tools and methods that could be tested that might produce tremendous insight into the new possibilities. It will need a good research project to materialize the concept. 29 3.2.4.1 How to Use Experience in Research? The experience can be used to determine the direction of a research. The many years on someone’s job gives an insight of the operational aspect of his/her line of work. We pick a research project that is in-line with our work and we have unlimited source of information that can be used in the research. The experience will enable us to state the process of our work from the beginning to end and this could be the practical side of our research. If one is a bank manager, then anything related to banking could be the area of research. On refining this perspective, the scope of the research is narrowed down. The experience also comes with a network within the banking sector and this will give an advantage during the other phases of research such as data collection, analysis, and professional opinion on the findings. Nonetheless, people with working experience are lack of academic skills such as writing, facilitating argument, critical analysis, etc. These and many more other skills are essential to bring the research forward to a meaning conclusion. However, these skills can be learned and acquired throughout the research period. 3.2.5 Discussions/Colloquium Attending discussions/colloquium could always bring some good ideas. Basically one has to participate in the process; either being a presenter or active participants. This kind of activity is held in the faculty and open for all to attend. It could also be in a conference being organized. 3.3 The Research Process The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps. Step 1: Identify and develop a topic Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic: 1. Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times the instructor will give clear guidelines as to what we can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in the proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by the instructor. 2. Select a topic of personal interest and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if we are writing about something that we find interesting. 3. Select a topic on which a manageable amount of information can be found. We do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet our needs. If we find too much information, we may need to narrow the topic; if we find too little, we may need to broaden the topic. 4. Be original. Select an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic. 5. Still can't come up with a topic to write about? The See your instructor or supervisor for advice. 30 Once you have identified a topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the Nigeria population, one might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in Nigeria?" By posing the subject as a question, one can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in the research. Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information Before beginning the research in earnest, we do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for our needs and to set the context of our research. We look up our keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in our lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. We may find it necessary to adjust the focus of our topic in light of the resources available to us. Step 3: Locate materials With the direction of the research now clear to us, we can begin locating material on our topic. There are a number of places we can look for information: Books, Journals and other periodicals from library. Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Step 4: Evaluate the sources We must provide credible, truthful, and reliable information obtained on the research topic. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable. Step 5: Make notes We must consult the resources we have chosen and note the information that will be useful in our research. We must be sure to document all the sources we consult, even if by chance we may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography. Step 6: Write the paper We begin by organizing the information we have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein we get our ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help us organize our ideas and determine the form the final paper will take. After this, we will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to our instructor. Step 7: Cite your sources properly “Give credit where credit is due”; we must cite our sources. Citing or documenting the sources used in our research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading our work to duplicate our research and locate the sources that we have listed as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation formats. Failure to cite our sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable! 31 Step 8: Proofread The final step in the process is to proofread the paper we have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. We make sure the sources used are cited properly. Make sure the message that we want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated. Additional research tips: Work from the general to the specific - find background information first, then use more specific sources. Don't forget print sources - many times print materials are more easily accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources. The library has books on the topic of writing research papers. Summary In this Chapter, you have been introduced to the way of planning a research project as well as the processes involved in planning a research. Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) Discuss the different ways in which a research project could be conceived. 32 Chapter 4: The Research Proposal and Research Problem or Research Gap Introduction We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that we suffers from ,”problem blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem. In this Chapter, the issue of identifying and stating a viable research problem is discussed. Learning Outcomes When you have studied this Chapter, you should be able to explain: 4.1 The Research Proposal 4.1.1 Major Elements of a Research Proposal 4.1.2 Common mistakes in Proposal Writing 4.2 The Research Problem 4.3 Why is Research Problem Statement Important? 4.4 Characteristics of Research Problem 4.5 Identification of a Research Problem 4.6 Elements of a Research Problem 4.7 Sources of Research Problem 4.8 Formulation of a Research Problem 4.9 Common Mistakes in Research Formulation 4.10 Statement of Problem 4.11 How to Identify Research Gap? 4.1 The Research Proposal The researchbrains.com is dully acknowledged for most of the information in this section. Project Students and Research Grant Applicants are requested to follow the following guidelines while developing the research proposal: 4.1.1 Major Elements of a Research Proposal 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review (or Background) 3. Procedure (or Methodology) 4. Others 5. Expected result 6. Discussion 7. Gantt chart (1) Introduction The “Introduction” tells the reader (i) What the project is about, (ii) Why the project is worth doing, and 33  (iii) Why the project is a good topic for fulfilling the objectives of the research requirement. Also, the Introduction must also state clearly and completely the specific objectives of the project. The Introduction section should among other things: (i) State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study. (ii) Provide the context and set the stage for the research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance. (iii)Present the rationale of the proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. (iv) Briefly describe the major issues and subproblems to be addressed by the research. (v) Identify the key independent and dependent variables of the experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon to be studied. (vi) State the hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, we may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.) (vii) Set the delimitation or boundaries of the proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. (viii) Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.) (2) Literature Review The following aspects are expected to be observed in this section of a proposal writing: (i) What kinds of research have been done before (including previous which can be accessed through the reference desk at the library)? (ii) What relevant kinds of studies or techniques need to be mastered to do the project? (iii) Where is the state of the art today? i.e., the current trend on the topic. (iv) How have others gone about trying to solve problems the project team or researcher wants to tackle, and in what ways will the approach build on and vary from previous work? (v) The researcher must ensure that s/he is not “reinventing the wheel”. (vi) The researcher must give credits to those who have laid the groundwork for the research. (vii) The researcher must demonstrates his/her knowledge of the research problem. (viii) The researcher must demonstrate his/her understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to the research question. (ix) The researcher must show his/her ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information. (x) The researcher must indicate his/her ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature. (xi) The researcher must provide new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for his/her research. (xii) The researcher must convince readers that his/her proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature). 34 (3) Methodology The Methodology section is very important because it tells the Research/Project Committee how the researcher plans to tackle his/her research problem. It will provide the researcher’s work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of the project. The methodology section must provide sufficient information about the methodology to be used in carrying out the research. The components of this section are elaborated in other chapters of this book. (4) Expected Results Obviously, the researcher does not have results at the proposal stage. However, she/he needs to have some idea about what kind of data to be collected, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer the research question or test the hypothesis sets up for the project. (5) Discussion It is important to convince the readers of the potential impact of a proposed research. The researcher needs to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of his/her proposal. That is why the researcher also needs to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of the research area. (6) The Gantt Chart Finally, the researcher will have to develop Gantt Chart for the Research Proposal. 4.1.2 Common mistakes in Proposal Writing (1) Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question. (2) Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for the research. (3) Failure to cite landmark studies. (4) Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers. (5) Failure to stay focused on the research question. (6) Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research Web Sources: (1) https://cgs.unimap.edu.my/images/BIOCAMP/Chapter%204.pdf (2) https://researchbrains.com/research-proposal-guidelines-universiti-malaysia- perlis/?utm_source=sendinblue&utm_campaign=Research_Proposal_Format__Unive rsiti_Malaysia_Perlis&utm_medium=email 4.2 The Research Problem Problems lie everywhere around us. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/ situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ 35 teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse of time. Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or statement of the problem. A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a researcher A research problem is a clear and definite statement or expression about a chosen area of concern, a difficulty to eliminate, a condition to improve, or a troubling problem that exists in theory, literature and practice. A research problem indicates a need for its meaningful investigation. 4.3 Why is Research Problem Statement Important? The research problem statement is important because:  It sets the scope.  It ties the study or research to reach goals and actions. 4.4 Characteristics of Research Problem A research problem has the following characteristics: 1. Specific – Problem should be stated specifically. A clear statement that describes the objectives will help a researcher to carry out successful and concrete research. 2. Measurable – Data collection and other simulation / real-time methods (current trend). The researcher should try to fix the expected output type which will be produced in future. 3. Achievable – Data should be realistic and correct statistical method must be used on the data to get precise results. The research problem should be easily achieved, solved, and answered by Researcher. 4. Realistic – Results should be real, not manipulated. It should be possible for researchers to perform experiments to solve the problem. 5. Time bound – the shorter the completion time, the better with minimum cost. 4.5 Identification of a Research Problem The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem; Step 1: Determining the field of research in which the researcher is keen to do the research work. Step 2: The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his specialization. Step 3: He should review the previous researches conducted in the area to know the recent trends and studies in the research domain. 36 Step 4: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study. Step 5: He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert of the field. Step 6: He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated. 4.6 Elements of a Research Problem 1. Why? – Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study? 2. What? – What is to be investigated or studies. 3. Where? – Where the research is to be conducted. 4. When? – Period of study or a data to be gathered. 5. Who? – From whom the data can be collected. 4.7 Sources of Research Problem 1. Personal Experience – Day to day experience of the researcher. 2. Practical Experience – worked under a project. 3. From literature – Book materials/article/publication/patent. Such specialized sources such as the encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations, theses and many similar publications are rich sources of research problems. 4. Previous Research – knowledge gathered from previous research. 5. Existing theories – moving practical solution for proved theory. 6. Social issues – familiarity with social concerns. Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research. 7. Brainstorming – Discussions from Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved. 8. Consultation with experts – experts have significant problem with them. Close professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities. 9. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious sources. 10. Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness. 11. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem. 4.8 Formulation of a Research Problem 1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you 2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas 3. Select what is the most interest to you 4. Raise research question 5. Formulate objectives 6. Assess the objectives, if they are realizable, measurable, implementable, etc 7. Double check 37 4.9 Common Mistakes in Research Formulation 1. Not emphasizing on “why” the problem you are trying to solve is important 2. Weak structuring of problem 3. Insufficiently motivated research questions. 4. Un-researchable problems. 5. Favored research methods – tendency to recast a research 6. Blind data mining 4.10 Statement of Problem Kerlinger (1973) identified the following three criteria of good problem statements; 1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables. 2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’. 3. It should be amenable to empirical testing. Meeting these criteria in a problem statement will result in a clear and concise idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning. 4.11 How to Identify Research Gap? (Adapted from Researchbrains.com) 4.11.1 What is a Research Gap? A research gap is a research question or issue that has not been effectively or at all addressed in a certain field of study. It is an area in which further studies and research are required. There may be a research gap if all of the existing research is outdated and requires new/updated research. The research gap makes a research publishable. Because it demonstrates that the researcher is not simply repeating current research; it demonstrates that s/he has a thorough understanding of the state of the body of knowledge in the chosen topic; and, ultimately, it demonstrates that s/he did research that fills a gap in the literature. 4.11.2 Challenges Faced While Identifying Research Gaps Researchers, particularly those seeking a Master’s or PhD, frequently struggle to detect gaps in the corpus of knowledge in their respective professions. The first and most critical stage in creating a research paper is to identify gaps and generate research questions. Of course, there are numerous techniques of solving this challenge, but identifying original and novel topics as well as gaps in the literature is never an easy task. There are various ways to take, and not all researchers, particularly younger ones, are not aware of them. Here is a list of difficulties one may encounter while detecting research gaps in his/her chosen field of study: 1. Effort spent in working with a massive volume of information: In a subject that interests the researcher, there may be numerous unresolved questions. As a result, s/he may become overwhelmed by the number of research gaps s/he come across and be unsure of which one to prioritise. 38 2. Difficulty in arranging search results: Some researchers may find it difficult to organise the material they have acquired. Ideas can quickly be lost if they are not adequately documented. 3. Hesitation in questioning established norms: Some researchers are unwilling to challenge current knowledge in their field and may be hesitant to challenge what others have claimed in their study. 4.11.3 Steps for Identifying Research Gaps 1. The Research Area Must Be Focused On Before we begin attempting to uncover gaps in the literature, we must first determine our area of interest, and then focus and narrow that research field. We will wind up having to research everything if we don’t limit down our initial research area of interest. We will be overwhelmed by all the research gaps discovered because there are still many unsolved research topics out there. 2. We Then Look For Ideas in Published Works We need to read books and articles on the topics that interest us the most. This will take time, but we will need to study a lot of research publications in our research subject to become an expert in it. This will not only help us understand the depth of work done by researchers in our area, but it will also allow us to ask questions that may lead us to a research gap. We must keep a record of what the authors conveyed to us and the questions that arise anytime we read anything – an article, a book, a book chapter, a dissertation, etc. We can ask ourselves questions like:  What is the significance of this research to my work or the broader field?  How can this article help me formulate my research questions?  Does the author’s argument require more clarification?  What issues or questions has the author not addressed?  Is there a different perspective that I can consider?  What other factors could have influenced the results?  Are the methods or procedures used outdated or no longer considered valid in my field? Is there scope for me to test the findings using a better-than-current approach? 3. One helpful tip is to look at the “suggestions for future study” or conclusion part of previous studies on our issue. Often, the authors will suggest areas where they believe there is a research gap and what studies they think should be conducted in the future. 4. We also need to read meta-analyses and review papers to understand more about research advancements and trends in our chosen field across time. This will allow us to become acquainted with previously investigated problems as well as trending questions on areas of interest to us. 39 5. Research Gap Table The research gap table is another method for locating the research problem. The first column in the table contains the category, which comprises characteristics, presentation of the study problem, and so on. The second column has sub-categories with knowledge gaps, non- matching evidence, resource conflict, and so forth. The third column comprises the definition, which includes the origins of the research problem, the reasons for the presence of the research gap, and how to display our findings in the research table. The final column, which is nothing but research gaps, displays the number of gaps in the research. 6. Check the Websites of Influential Journals The websites of important journals frequently include a section called ‘key concepts,’ in which experts in a field emphasize the key ideas in that discipline. Reading through this part can help one obtain a significant number of new ideas and concepts. Furthermore, one should read the reference section of these papers because it can link him/her to useful resources on the subject. 7. Another form of paper is known as “State of the Art” paper. State of the Art papers summarizes the current state of knowledge on a particular topic. They define research frontiers and highlight fruitful and prospective future research fields. They fall under the category of systematic review papers. 8. Look for digital tools or the most cited academic papers using digital tools We can use digital tools to cut time and expand the scope of our search for a research gap while becoming familiar with the popular questions in our field. Knowing which subjects are deemed important can be greatly helped by websites like Essential Science Indicator that list the most cited articles in an area along with the new branches, significant authors, publications, and countries in that field. To find out more about the most often asked questions about our research area, we may also use Google Trends. Our quest for an unexplored region in a subject of study will be facilitated by this. Other websites and applications, like Social Mention, Springer, Google Ads, and BroadReader, offer more sophisticated details about the queries, including their popularity, various bars and charts that show trends over time, the most recent articles that have been downloaded, and their associated tag advertisements, etc. Summary In this Chapter, you have been introduced to the concept of research problem and research gap, their meaning and importance. Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1. Explain the major elements of a research proposal 2. What is research problem? Why is research problem so important in research? 3. Identify and discuss the sources of research problems. 4. What is a research gap? Explain the ways of obtaining a research gap in a study. 40 Chapter 5: Research Tools Introduction No matter the field of research, whether it’s science, social science or computer science precisely, there are tools out there to help the researcher organize notes, cite sources, find important articles, connect with colleagues, and more. This Chapter describes the tools and techniques that are used in quantitative and qualitative methods as well as other electronic resources available for organizing our research project. Learning Outcomes When you have studied this Chapter, you should be able to explain: 5.1 Quantitative research tools 5.2 Qualitative research techniques and tools 5.3 Pre-testing 5.4 Electronic / Online Research Tools 5.1 Quantitative research tools Quantitative methods involve the collection and analysis of objective data, often in numerical form. The research design is determined prior to the start of data collection and is not flexible. The research process, interventions and data collection tools (e.g. questionnaires) are standardized to minimize or control possible bias. Table 5.1 provides an overview of quantitative data collection strategies. Table 5.1: Quantitative data collection tools Tool Process involved The researcher directly observes (watches and listens to) some Observation phenomenon and then systematically records the resulting checklist observations. Tool: Observation checklist is the instrument used for structured observation. The checklist consists of pre-determined specific categories of behaviours/arrangement/processes/procedures that will be observed. Questionnaires Survey instruments comprising a series of questions, designed to measure a given item or set of items. Tool: Questionnaires can be used for structured interviews, offline or online self-administered data collection, and telephone interviews. In a questionnaire, the subjects are required to respond to questions in writing or, more commonly, by marking an answer sheet. In the latter type of questionnaire, response options are often closed lists of responses. Performance based Performance-based instruments are alternative forms of assessment instruments used to demonstrate a skill or proficiency by having the participant create, produce or do something (e.g. write a paper, create a portfolio, do an athletic performance). Although popular in recent years, the use 41  of these approaches is fraught with technical difficulties. They are often time-consuming and may require equipment or other resources that are not readily available. Diary A diary is a self-completed record of experiences during the study period (e.g. alcohol consumption, episode of sickness, or travel). Electronic data Electronic data capture is a method for collecting data entered directly capture into a computer or other electronic device (i.e. rather than paper forms). The instrument can be in web based, handheld/smartphone or computer format. For example, Google Forms can be designed to capture data from respondents online. 5.2 Qualitative Research Techniques and Tools Qualitative research is generally used to explore values, attitudes, opinions, feelings and behaviours of individuals and understand how these affect the individuals in question. Researchers using qualitative methods are concerned with individuals’ perceptions of specific topics, issues or situations and the meanings they assign to their lives. This kind of research is important for generating theory, developing policy, improving educational practice, justifying change for a particular practice, and illuminating social issues. It may also be used to explain the results of a previous quantitative study or to prepare for the development of a quantitative study. If a research team decides to use qualitative methods in a study, the team will need to describe how qualitative methods will provide the information to help them address their research objectives and research question(s). For example, qualitative research may be appropriate because we intend to explore the values and behaviours of individuals in a study area in relation to a public health intervention, and to understand how these affect the phenomena in question. For example, why do some households have bed nets but do not use them? Or, why do individuals in a study area decline services from a specialized antenatal clinic? Qualitative methods can provide context, a deeper understanding of stakeholders’ needs and participants’ perspectives. When collecting qualitative data, it is preferable to use more than one data collection method. Obtaining information on the same phenomena in a variety of ways allows the researcher to triangulate the data, adding rigour to the research. By nature, qualitative data collection is emergent and the design is intentionally flexible to enable the researcher investigate themes (findings) in more detail as they emerge. Qualitative methods use data collection methodologies such as interviewing, observation, discussions and review of documents (e.g. diaries, historical documents). The results of qualitative research are descriptive or explanatory rather than predictive, and are typically time- consuming to collect and analyse. Table 5.2 may be helpful to decide which qualitative tools and techniques are most appropriate for a research project. 42 Table 5.2: Qualitative Data Collection Tools Tool Process involved The researcher participates in/observes the natural setting over an Participant observation extended period of time: Systematic observation of verbal and non-verbal actual behaviour in which trained observers use a structured recording form. Data is collected by observing, interviewing, note taking and/or journaling. The researcher develops a relationship with the participants, which may affect the data collected. Tool: Participant observation checklist Example: Semi-structured direct observation will be carried out in selected facilities to assess and compare the behaviour of health staff towards patients who are not members of the revised schemes in at least two facilities in each study county, such as one township or commune health centre and one county or district general hospital. In this setting the observer can participate in the interaction between the health staff and the patients and can act as part of the health providers’ team or as a client to the health providers. Non-participant The researcher does not participate in any activity in the natural observation setting. Data is collected by observing, note-taking and/or journaling. The researcher does not develop a relationship with the participants and therefore cannot explore further issues in relation to observations made unless this approach is complemented with a follow up. Tool: Participant observation checklist Example: The same study setting as the example above, but this time the observer does not participate in the interaction between health staff and the patients. He or she will independently observe the encounters. Field observation Detailed descriptions of events, actions, behaviours, people and during a ‘transect walk’ objects in a natural setting. Field observations are written in the form of field notes. Tool: Transect walk checklist Example: To understand the day-to-day activities, practices, and interactions in a village, a researcher walks through the village cross-sectionally and observes villagers activities, structures of houses, buildings, and interactions among villagers. In-depth interviews A purposeful conversation directed to the participant by the researcher. The researcher will typically develop an interview guide beforehand. The researcher encourages the participant to talk in-depth, prompting more detail whenever possible without leading the participant to specific answers. Interviews are often 43  recorded and transcribed. The average length of an interview is one hour (or less). Tool: In-depth interview guide Example: In-depth individual interviews with: People suffering from ‘catastrophic illnesses’, including both members and non- members of revised schemes and those who have used and not used the services; health policy-makers at national and local levels; and rural health insurance scheme managers. Review of documents Written or printed records of past events (e.g. letters, anecdotal and artefacts notes, diaries). Material objects and symbols of a current or past event, groups, organizations, or a person that can reveal social processes, meaning, and value (e.g. diplomas, awards, papers, logos etc.). Tool: Checklist or other criteria to review documents Example: Analysis of printed posters, commercials etc. to understand values, messages and meanings for targeted audiences. Video/film/photographs Media that captures the daily life of an individual, group or event under study, can be captured and viewed repeatedly to record behaviours. Tool: Checklist and/or criteria to review that media Example: Review photographs taken by community members showing the areas of public health need in their community. Focus group discussion A 1–2 hour discussion, guided by a trained moderator, in which 6 (FGD) to 10 similar respondents (e.g. by age, gender, social status) focus on a list of defined topics. The discussion, designed to reveal beliefs, opinions and motives, should take place in an informal setting. Data collection may be enhanced by the interaction among participants. Tool: Focused Group Discussion FGD topic guide Example: Focus group discussions using participatory techniques with: members and non-members of the revised schemes (including different age, gender and socioeconomic groups); and health service providers at county/district levels and below, including general practitioners/primary care providers, preventive service providers, and out-patient and in-patient providers. Unlike quantitative data collection, qualitative data collection can be more flexible allowing the research to incorporate emerging themes in the ongoing data collection. This allows the researcher to test and validate findings as they collect the data. For example, perhaps in one in- depth interview, the researcher learns that people do not attend the lymphatic filariasis mass drug administration because they use traditional medicines and therefore feel that they are already under treatment. The researcher may then add a related question to subsequent in-depth interviews to see how prevalent this phen