Research Methodology Unit 1 PDF

 RESEARCH- A WAY OF THINKING Meaning, Aims & Objectives, 1.1 - RESEARCH Characteristics, Process Meaning, Types of Variables, Problems & 1.2 - BASIC CONCEPTS Hypotheses (APA) Planning, Co...

 RESEARCH- A WAY OF THINKING Meaning, Aims & Objectives, 1.1 - RESEARCH Characteristics, Process Meaning, Types of Variables, Problems & 1.2 - BASIC CONCEPTS Hypotheses (APA) Planning, Conduction & Reporting 1.3 - ETHICAL STANDARDS OF research RESEARCH 1.4 - PROPOSING & APA format for writing a research report, REPORTING RESEARCH references and appendices UNIT 1.1- RESEARCH Introduction  What is Research? Research can be defined as- “Creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.“ A systematic process based on collected data that is used to find the answer to an existing question. Kerlinger (1973) defines research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.” Grinnell (1993:4) "research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable" Burns (1997:2) defines research as "a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem"  Arbitrary Research method Types of Research Methods Scientific Research method Arbitrary Research method Scientific Research method Intuition, opinion, belief or Evidence based, tried & tested, impression grounded in theory subjective in nature relatively objective in nature casual, uncontrolled methods systematic, controlled methods inaccurate instruments accurate instruments questionable reliability and validity questionable reliability and validity of measurements of measurements uncritical attitude critical attitude For example- buying a car For example- testing out a new medicine  What is the Purpose of Research? to find out about some phenomenon or matter to expand our knowledge to obtain reliable & accurate information to understand people, events, choices better and within the right context in order to make informed choices to test things out, explore and get a feel of things to be able to apply theory in the practical world What happens in the absence of Research? incorrect / inaccurate information seeps in uninformed or misinformed decisions are made potential for disastrous consequences problems go unsolved mistakes / errors are made in evaluation no new knowledge is uncovered  Aims & Objectives of Research Exploration extends knowledge through finding brings to light information, causes, solutions that might never have been discovered in the ordinary course of life aims at developing new tools, concepts, theories through an in depth study of unknown phenomena Description aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon can answer what, where and when questions helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue, opinion, event and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies  For example, we would not know about the existence of separation anxiety if it had not been identified and described Explanation aims to answer the why questions enables the analysis of inter-relationships among variables, events, phenomena aims to derive causal relationships establishes generalizations, laws & contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge Prediction refers to the ability to anticipate an event prior to its actual occurrence aims to predict outcomes, costs, events, phenomena through the analysis of existing data, theories guides decision making & helps in taking informed decisions  improves performance, risk management and helps in making optimum use of resource For example- accurate prediction of an eclipse making accurate prediction requires knowledge of the antecedent conditions that produce such a phenomenon Application bridges the gap between theory and practice verifies, tests, clarifies existing facts, theories and explanations aims to find practical, workable solutions to real life problems evaluates and helps improve existing decisions, methods, practices & knowledge Control / Influence refers to the manipulation of the conditions that determine a phenomenon requires knowledge of the causes or antecedent conditions of a phenomenon; only then there can be manipulation for producing the desired phenomenon helps determine causal relationships with a certain level of accuracy reduces the influence of non-relevant forces allows for replication  Characteristics of Research Control refers to holding constant or eliminating the influence of extraneous variables so that an unambiguous claim can be made about cause and effect For example- Testing the effectiveness of a new drug on fever must control for participants’ expectations that the drug will help their symptoms (some participants may experience improvement in symptoms as a result of thinking that they have received a useful treatment) {Placebo effect} well-designed drug testing experiments include a control condition where participants receive a “drug” that looks like the actual drug, but is not Rigorous scrupulous ensuring that the procedures followed during research are relevant, appropriate and justified not consorting to questionable practices to obtain the results Systematic implies that the procedures adopted during the conduction of the research follow a certain logical order / sequence the various steps cannot be placed in a haphazard way thus, there must be a logical reasoning process Valid & Verifiable implies that whatever has been concluded on the basis of the research findings is correct to notarrive at self-wanted or expected results the findings can be verified by self and other Empirical originating in or based on observation or experience, not just on ideas and theory implies that the results found and any conclusions drawn upon are based on hard evidence gathered using observation or experience or by using calibrated scientific instruments For example- Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to test a drug and to study the effect and cause. This way, they prove certain theories they had proposed for the specific drug Critical critical scrutiny is examining something really closely, to check for mistakes, bias, overlooked errors etc not accepting something on face value implies that the procedures adopted during the conduction of the research must be able to withstand critical scrutiny  to not arrive at pleasing or agreeable results the process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks for it to be called research Operationalism physicist Percy Bridgman (1927) argued that each concept must be defined by the steps or operations used to measure them for example- Length=inches, cm, mm, km; definition of financial strata such definitions are known as an operational definitions initially embraced by research psychologists because they provided the desired level of specificity and precision Criticisms early criticisms of operational definitions was that their demands were too strict a single operational definition could not completely specify the meaning of a term Replication refers to the reproduction of the results obtained from one study in additional studies in research, caution must be exercised when interpreting findings from a single study in isolation To make a general claim, results must be replicable; if not then the observations were either due to chance or due to contextual factors Ethical Neutrality values, emotions & personal experiences can often get in the way of accurate observation and discourse; putting them aside to a certain degree is necessary for maintaining objectivity complete neutrality is impossible; however researchers can refrain from imposing their own judgments on others Ex- a researcher can report people's beliefs about something without ranking, judging or endorsing the people or their beliefs Commitment to Objective Directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions & solutions to problems  What is Research Methodology? refers to the methods used to perform research related operations a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem explains how a researcher intends to carry out their research why is it important? details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives encompasses points like data source, collection and analysis provides a detailed plan that helps to keep researchers on track allows readers, peers to understand the approach and methods used to reach conclusions documentation replication  Process of Research Identify a problem Select / Choose a problem Define the problem Establish hypotheses Collect data Analyse data Draw inferences, conclusions Identify a problem not all questions can be transformed into research problems according to Kerlinger- “it is an interrogative sentence that states the relationship between two variables” problem areas are identified via interest, observation, through literature review etc Not all problems, questions are "good" ones 3 Criteria of a "good" research problem are- the variables in the problem should express a relationship of some kind the problem should be stated in question form the problem implies possibilities for empirical testing Sources of research problems- people a group of individuals or a community problems to examine the existence of certain issues or problems to ascertain people's attitude towards an issue programmes evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention phenomena to establish the existence / regularity / occurence of an event, situation, outcome Select / Choose a problem Interest Magnitude- manageable, specific and clear / time & resources Measurement of concepts- clear about indicators & measurement Level of Expertise- having adequate level of expertise Relevance- existing knowledge / bridges gaps / useful applications Data Availability- population / sampling / permission Ethical Issues- questions asked / information shared / ‘guinea pigs’ Steps for Formulating a research problem Step I- Identify a broad field or a subject area of interest Step II- Dissect the broad area into sub-areas Step III- Select what is important Step IV- Raise Research Questions ‘What is it that I want to find out?’ Step V- Formulate Objectives transform research questions into behavioural aims by using action-oriented words such as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to ascertain’ and ‘to examine' Step VI- Assess Objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving the objectives consider them in the light of the time, resources, technology and expertise at disposal Step VII- Double-Check ‘am I really gung ho about this study?’ and ‘do I really have enough resources for it?’ if answer to even one of them is ‘no’, reassess objectives  BASIC CONCEPTS Variables, Problems & Hypotheses  What is a Variable? an image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement – hence capable of taking on different values – is called a variable Concept vs Variable - (Measurability) Rich, Income, Wealth Variables can be defined as- “According to Kerlinger, ‘A variable is a property that takes on different values. Putting it redundantly, a variable is something that varies … A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are attached’ (1986: 27).“ Black and Champion define a variable as ‘rational units of analysis that can assume any one of a number of designated sets of values’ (1976: 34) simply put, a variable is a construct that is taken for research because it 'varies' across individuals can have many values; at least two are required converting a concept in to a variable to operationalise a concept - indicators must be identified a set of criteria reflective of the concept – which can then be converted into variables rich - income and assets - worth in ruppees- setting a category Types of Variables From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Continuous variable take almost any type of numeric value and can be further divided into meaningful smaller increments which include fractional and decimal values typically measured on a scale age, height, weight, time, speed Discrete / Categorical variable takes on distinct and countable values Dichotomous variable has only two categories- present/absent, alive/dead Polytomous variable can be divided into more than two categories, for example colours (red, blue, green, yellow); attitudes (strongly favourable, favourable, uncertain, unfavourable, strongly unfavourable)  From the viewpoint of causal relationship Independent variable the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in a phenomenon or situation For example- impact of sleep deprivation on alertness while driving what are the variables? how are they measured? IV manipulation manipulating an independent variable refers to changing its level systematically so that different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of that variable the same group of participants is exposed to different levels at different times For example- Testing the effectiveness of a new medicine on flu symptoms what are the 2 variables? how will they be measured? what are the levels? level 1- 0 mg (no medicine) / placebo to group 1 level 2- 100 mg to group 2 level 3- 200 mg to group 3 group 1 is the control group (why is it required?) group 2 and 3 are experimental groups  Dependent variable the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an independent variable the variable(s) that the researcher wants to measure called 'dependent' because it is dependent upon how the IV levels have an effect not manipulated; beyond the control of the researcher the condition we are trying to explain expected to change when the levels of the IV change changes are dependent on the changes in the IV no levels studied; only variations associated with the IV For example- impact of sleep deprivation on alertness while driving testing the effectiveness of a new medicine on flu symptoms  Control variables Something that the researcher wishes to control / keep constant in all the levels of the IV not keeping it constant could influence the way the IV affects DV– Example- 2 groups of students taking a test after being exposed to two different teaching methods could be controlled also because it is not the focus of the study Example- Hindi students getting a math test in English determined on the basis of previous experience; previous research; theory; intuition Typical Control Variables (Controls) Socioeconomic variables – gender, age, level of education, financial situation, family history, lifestyle Environmental variables – geographical area, climate, time of day, season, etc For example- Testing the effectiveness of a new medicine on flu symptoms what are the control variables? how can they be held constant? everyone should have the same illness no other complications, comorbidities or illnesses no other medicines dose given at the same time for all  Mediating / Intervening variable explains the process through which two variables are related if something is a mediator caused by the independent variable. influences the dependent variable for example- sleep quality (IV) can affect learning (DV) through the mediator of alertness  Moderating variable moderator influences the level, direction of a relationship between variables shows for whom, when or under what circumstances a relationship holds For example- the relationship between stress and its impact on life, social support might be a moderating variable relationship between stress and its effect on life may be stronger for people who lack social support than for those who have it gender identity moderates the relationship between work experience and salary a mediator variable and a moderator variable are two distinct concepts mediator variable explains the relationship between two variables moderator variable affects the direction or strength of the relationship between two variables  What is a Hypothesis? a hypothesis is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know derived from two Greek word Hypo- under & thesis – refers to place Hypotheses can be defined as- “According to Kerlinger, ‘A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables’ (1986: 17)“ Black and Champion define a hypothesis as ‘a tentative statement about something, the validity of which is usually unknown’ (1976: 126) Bailey defines a hypothesis as 'a proposition that is stated in a testable form and that predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables' Characteristics of a hypothesis it is a tentative proposition it should be simple, specific & conceptually clear it should be testable and capable of verification it specifies a relationship between two or more variables it should be related to / supported by the existing body of knowledge it should be measurable Functions of a hypothesis it provides a study with focus it enhances objectivity in study it may enable to find or add to formulation of theory Criteria of a good hypothesis should be conceptually clear must be specific must be parsimonious should be logical should be quantifiable should neither be too broad nor too narrow must be verifiable Types of hypotheses Null Hypothesis: no relationship between IV & DV (Ho) Alternate Hypothesis: the hypothesis that states that ther is a relationship between two variables (Ha) Directional Hypothesis- states the direction of the relationship between variables Non-Directional Hypothesis- does not state the direction of the relationship between variables  Logical Hypothesis: Verified logically ( agreement, disagreement, difference and residue) Statistical Hypothesis: Verified Statistically Process of Hypothesis testing ETHICAL STANDARDS OF RESEARCH (APA) Planning, Conduction & Reporting research  What are Ethics? when something is done in an ethical manner; it means it is in accordance with principles of conduct that are considered correct, especially those of a given profession or group Current ethical guidelines for both behavioral and medical researchers have their origins in The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979) defined the principles and applications that guided more detailed regulations and the American Psychological Association Ethics Code 3 basic ethical principles- Beneficence, Justice & Respect for persons (Autonomy)and Justice Stakeholders in Research Participants Researcher Sponsoring Organisation Major ethical guidelines Beneficience & Nonmaleficience refers to the need for research to maximise benefits and minimise any possible harmful effects resulting from participation researcher must calculate potential risks and benefits that are likely to result (risk-benefit analysis) Determining Risk potential risks include risk of physical injury; loss of privacy & confidentiality; social, emotional & mental stress  Minimal Risk: when the procedures/activities in study are similar to those experienced by the participants in their everyday life there must be provision to help / support participants for the potential risks present in the study Respect for Persons (Autonomy) states that participants are treated as autonomous; they are capable of making decisions about whether to participate in research informed consent is vital & indispensable- potential participants in a research project should be provided with all information that might influence their decision of whether to participate should be informed about the purposes of the study, the risks and benefits involved all potential participants reserve the right to refuse or terminate participation in the study at any point  Informed Consent typically covers- the purpose of the research procedures that will be used including time & resources risks and benefits confidentiality assurance of voluntary participation and permission to withdraw contact information for questions The form must be written so that participants understand the information in the form Potential Issues Special populations (minors, patients) agreement by a minor is formally called assent Coercion any procedure that limits an individual’s freedom to consent for example- a supervisor asking employees to fill out a survey Deception refers to when there is active misrepresentation of information, situation, context why is it necessary sometimes? why can it be unethical ?(Active & Passive) Debriefing: informing the participants about the research after it has been completed Desensitizing Justice addresses issues of fairness in receiving the benefits of research as well as bearing the burdens of accepting risks Tuskegee Syphilis Study requires researchers to address issues of equity Any decisions to include or exclude certain people must be justified on scientific grounds Fidelity & Scientific Integrity a commitment to reporting the results as is without any manipulations, faking or fraudulent means reporting scientific, evidence supported results rather than ones that are pleasing to the public opinion, sponsors or self never about proving anyone right or wrong using methods that are accurate and free from bias (as much as possible) not faking or deceiving participants in order to obtain data Researcher Commitments (Trust) researchers make several implicit contracts with participants during the course of a study For example- if participants agree to be present for a study at a specific time, the researcher should also be there / if researchers promise to send a summary of the results, they should do so may seem to be little details, but they are very important in maintaining trust between participants and researchers  APA Code of Ethics the American Psychological Association (APA) has provided leadership in formulating ethical principles and standards. The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct is known as the APA Ethics Code Prior to conducting any study, the proposed research must be reviewed to determine if it meets ethical standards 10 ethical standards address specific issues concerning the conduct of psychologists in teaching, research, therapy, counseling, testing, and other professional roles and responsibilities Ethical Standard 8: Research and Publication. Research with Human participants (8 points) Institutional Review Board reviews psychological research to protect the rights and welfare of human participants Research with Animals (7 points) care must be taken to minimise pain or discomfort caused must be in compliance with federal, state and local laws APA has also developed a more detailed Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee review research conducted with animals to ensure animals are treated humanely Misrepresentation- Fraud & Plagiarism (2 points) fabrication of data is fraud Plagiarism refers to misrepresenting another’s work as your own Concerns for Electronic Research data security privacy & confidentiality taking Informed Consent how to debrief PROPOSING & REPORTING RESEARCH (APA) format for Report, References Reporting Psychological Research an attempt to communicate research in peer-reviewed scientific journals decisions about who should receive publication credit (multiple authors) proper Citations & References avoiding Plagiarism Things to keep in mind when Writing a Research Report, Article read the APA format thoroughly (Purdue owl / APA Style & notes) keep the format in mind and make a rough outline review of literature must be thorough go through papers from known, respected journals to get acquainted plagiarism checks must be done at regular intervals know your references & their formats well keep revising the drafts THANK YOU