Research Methodology - Tools & Techniques PDF

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Dr. Prabhat Pandey Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey © Bridge Center, 2015 BRIDGE CENTER Buzau, Al. Marghiloman 245 bis, 120082 Tel. 0728394546 e-mail: [email protected] Romania, European Un...

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Dr. Prabhat Pandey Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey © Bridge Center, 2015 BRIDGE CENTER Buzau, Al. Marghiloman 245 bis, 120082 Tel. 0728394546 e-mail: [email protected] Romania, European Union Printed in Romania First published, 2015 ISBN 978-606-93502-7-0 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The publishers have applied for copyright permission for those pieces that need copyright clearance and due acknowledgement will be made at the first opportunity. The views and contents of this book are solely of the author. The author of the book has taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the author has been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. 2  Dr. Prabhat Pandey Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Bridge Center 2015 3 4 CONTENTS Preface………………………………………………………………………………………………….6 Chapter 1 – Research…………………………………………………………………….7 Chapter 2 - Research Process………………………………………………………………13 Chapter 3 - Research Design……………………………………………………………….18 Chapter 4 - Research Problem…………………………………………………………….23 Chapter 5 - Variables and Their Types………………….……………………………..29 Chapter 6 - Formulation of Hypothesis……………………………………………….32 Chapter 7 – Sampling………………………………………………………………………….40 Chapter 8 - Tools of Data Collection……………………………………………………57 Chapter 9 - Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………..70 Chapter 10 - Interpretation of Data…………………………………………………….75 Chapter 11 - Research Methods………………………………………………………….78 Chapter 12 - Descriptive or Survey Method………………………………………..84 Chapter 13 - Experimental Method…………………………………………………….89 Chapter 14 - Research Proposal………………………………………………………..101 Chapter 15 - Research Report…………………………………….…………………..…110 Bibliography…………………………….……………………………………………………….116 5 PREFACE The authors felt during their several years of teaching experience that students fail to understand the books written on Research Methodology because generally they are written in technical language. Since this course is not taught before the Master’s degree, the students are not familiar with its vocabulary, methodology and course contents. The authors have made an attempt to write it in very non- technical language. It has been attempted that students who try to understand the research methodology through self-learning may also find it easy. The chapters are written with that approach. Even those students who intend to attain high level of knowledge of the research methodology in social sciences will find this book very helpful in understanding the basic concepts before they read any book on research methodology. This book is useful those students who offer the Research Methodology at Post Graduation and M.Phil. Level. This book is also very useful for Ph.D. Course Work examinations. Dr. Prabhat Pandey Dr. Meenu Mishra Pandey 6  1 Research Introduction: Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress. Without systematic research there would have been very little progress. John W. Best has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which, in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better products.” Scientific research leads to progress in some field of life. New products, new facts, new concepts and new ways of doing things are being found due to ever-increasing significant research in the physical, the biological, the social and the psychological fields. Research today is no longer confined to the science laboratory. Meaning of Research: Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re+Search. It means to search again. So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of knowledge. Researches are considered as a combination of those activities which are removed from day to day life 7 and are pursued by those persons who are gifted in intellect and sincere in pursuit of knowledge. But it is not correct to say that the research is restricted to such type of persons, however, it is correct to say that major contribution of research comes from highly gifted and committed workers. Thus the research is not at all mysterious and is carried on by hundreds of thousands of average individuals. Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving the problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. There are many ways of obtaining knowledge. They are intuition, revelation, and authority, logical manipulation of basic assumptions, informed guesses, observation, and reasoning by analogy. One of the branches of research known as empirical research is highly goal-oriented technique. Definitions of Research: The following are the important definitions of research: “Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and form and always researching to truth.” J. Francis Rummel “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field studied.” P.M. Cook “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts.” W.S. Monroes “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a 8 more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusion.” John W. Best “Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.” Clifford Woody “Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.” Redman & Mori “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts , analyse their sequences , inter- relationships and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.” P.V. Younge Purpose of Research: The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research below: (i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative research studies). 9 (ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.(Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies). (iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. (Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies). (iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). Characteristics of Research: Following are the characteristics of research; (i) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. (ii) Research requires expertise. (iii) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. (iv) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences. (v) Research demands accurate observation and description. (vi) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose. (vii) Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis. (viii) Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems. (ix) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached. (x) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. (xi) Research is carefully recorded and collected. (xii) Research sometimes requires courage. 10 Types of Research: There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different categories. (A) On the basis of nature of information: On the basis of nature of information we can classify the research into two types; (i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data. (ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data. (B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research: On the basis of these criteria we can categorize the research into two categories. (i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal. (ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited. (C) On the basis of approach of research: We may classify research into two different categories. (i) Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and Genetic research. (ii) Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey Research. (D) On the basis of method of research : On the basis of research method we may classify a research into five different categories. (i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the vision of others on the content of research. (ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and deals with past events. 11 (iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of research. (iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future events. (v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as quantitative in nature depending upon the content. 12  2 Research Process Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research. These actions or steps are; (i) Formulating the Research Problem (ii) Extensive Literature Survey (iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis (iv) Preparing the Research Design (v) Determining the Research Design (vi) Collecting the Research Data (vii) Execution of the Project (viii) Analysis of Data (ix) Hypothesis Testing (x) Generalization and Interpretation (xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result (i) Formulation of Research Problem: At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into and then research problem should be formulated. (ii) Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or 13 unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. (iii) Development of Working Hypothesis: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides the focal point for research. (iv) Preparing the Research Design: After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. (v) Determining Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.in census inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and energy so it it not possible in practice under many circumstances. Sample designs can be either probability or non-probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researchers to determine this probability. 14 (vi) Collecting the Data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways; By observation,  Through personal interview,  Through telephonic interviews,  By mailing of questionnaires or  Through schedules. (vii) Execution of the Project: Execution of project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey realistic as much as possible. (viii) Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions. 15 (ix) Hypothesis Testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which is to be answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated. (x) Generalizations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. (xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. The layout of the report should be as follows; the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary pages carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main text of the report should have introduction, review of literature and methodology. Criteria of Good Research: One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: (a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 16 (b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. (c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. (d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. (e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. (f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. (g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. 17  3 Research Design A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data. Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research. Definitions: “Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.” William Zikmund “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.” Kerlinger Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the sample on the population. Purpose of a Research Design: Research designs are used for the following purposes; (i) To minimize the expenditure: Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained.It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing 18 maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research. (ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling: Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. (iii) To collect the relevant data and technique: Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of research design upset the entire project. (iv) To provide blue print for plans: Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and attractive construction of a house need a blue print and a map of that, similarly we needs a blue print or a design for the smooth flow of operation of research. (v) To provide an overview to other experts: A research design provides an overview of all the research process and with the help of the design we can take the help and views of experts 19 of that field.The design helps the investigator to organize his ideas , which helps to recognize and fix his faults. (vi) To provide a direction: A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the other executives and others who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies available, literature and learns about new (alternative approaches. Characteristics of Good Research Design: Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A good research design possesses the following characteristics; (i) Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis and interpretation. 20 (ii) Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability. (iii) Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly. (iv) Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the following characteristics; a) The problem is clearly formulated. b) The population is clearly defined. c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate sample. d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out. 21  e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations. (v) Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research design is that it should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like; (i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied (ii) The objective of the research (iii) The process of obtaining information (iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and (v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research. (vi) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias and maximize reliability and generalization. 22  4 Research Problem The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/ situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that we suffers from ,”problem blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem. Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or statement of the problem. A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a researcher. It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem, but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically. 23 Definitions of the Problem: The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of the problem are given below; “Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” John Geoffery “Problem is a question which is to be solved.” John. G. Tornsand “To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.” Whitney “A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists when there is a no available answer to same question.” J.C. Townsend “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists between two or more variables?” F.N. Kerlinger “To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.” Monero and Engelhart Identification of a Research Problem: The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem; 24 Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work. Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his specialization. Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies are being conducted in the area. Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study. Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert of the field. Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated. The Sources of the Problem: (i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious sources. (ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research. (iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of research problems. (iv) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest additional areas of needed research. (v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved, close 25  professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities. (vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness. (vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem. Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be proposed and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty member or research worker is a desirable practice. One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem from one that may be vague and too complex. Statement of Problem: Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements; 1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables. 2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’. 3. It should be amenable to empirical testing. Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning. 26 Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem: 1. To make the research work feasible. 2. To delimit the scope of the problem. 3. To establish the proper frame of reference. Aspects of Delimiting a Problem: 1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem. 2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level. 3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money. 4. Delimited to the best method only. 5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable. 6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques. 7. Other delimitations particular to a problem. As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of studies also confine to these delimitations. Evaluation of the Problem: When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of questions about it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem. Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under Taken: 1. Is the Problem Researchable? 2. Is the Problem New? 27  3. Is the Problem Significant? 4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher? In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following: a) Research competencies of the Researcher b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher c) Financial consideration in the Project d) Time requirement for the Project e) Administrative considerations in the Project. 28  5 Variables and Their Types Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative values. For example; height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific study is to analyse the functional relationship of the variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from one individual to another. The quantity which can vary from person to person. “Variable is a property that taken on different value”, Kerlinger It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence and nature, affects some other event or process, which is being studied. (i) Continuous Variable: It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range. (ii) Discrete Variable: A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps is called a discrete variable. (iii) Dependent Variable or Criterion variable: If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent variable. Criterion variable is the basis on which the effectiveness of the experimental variable is studied. (iv) Independent Variable or Experimental Variable: The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. The variable whose effect is going to be known is known as experimental variable. 29 (v) Controlled Variable: The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with other variable, known as controlled variable. (vi) Confounding Variable: Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable (outcome measures) ,and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the independent variable. They are of two types; Intervening and extraneous variable. (vii) Intervening Variable: There are a number of abstract variables in educational/social experiments, which intervene the effect of experimental or criterion variable. For controlling intervening variable appropriate research design should be used. Intervening variables are hard if not impossible, to observe because they usually have to do with an individual’s feelings like boredom, stress, fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other hand, are more readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled. (viii) Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gain in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here self-concept is independent variable and achievement in social study is dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error.’ A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variables 30 and not to some extraneous variable(s).When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s). Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing distraction. It may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform characteristics and through randomization. (ix) Organismic Variable: There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by the researcher as they are. They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and the like. The researcher can classify the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to suit his research condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on some learning task, any differences might be attributed to sex differences but not necessarily so. The differences between boys and girls could be due to differences in intelligence, training, motivation or a myriad of other conditions present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological differences between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot themselves point out causal relations are called organismic variables. 31  6 Formulation of Hypothesis Formulation of Hypothesis The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference. Definitions of Hypothesis: “Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at least likely to be true.” J.S. Mill “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes basis for further investigation.” Lundberg “It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” John W. Best 32 “A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts, principles and theories.” Barr and Scates “Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.” Gorge J. Mouly Nature of Hypothesis: (i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a hypothesis. (ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts. It is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification. (iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables. (iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the future verification not the past facts and information. (v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for verification of hypothesis. Functions of Hypothesis: H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis; (i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an investigator to start his research works. 33 (ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible solutions to the problem. (iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis. (iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis. (v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose. (vi) It delimits field of the investigation. (vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic approach to the problem. (viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification. Importance of a Hypothesis: (i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively adopted generalization. (ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory and the investigation. (iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and research procedure to meet these goals. (iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.” 34 (v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study." (vi) Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the research work.” (vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of useful or excess data. (viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the standpoint of problem at hand. (ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its ramification. (x) It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem. (xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and explaining the unknown facts. (xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion. (xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research. Forms of Hypothesis: According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis; (i) Question form: A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical observation. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able categories. 35 (ii) Declarative Statement : A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the criterion variable. (iii) Directional Hypothesis : A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated outcome. (iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis: This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional form of hypothesis. There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested there is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do not know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research or findings. 36 Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis means zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it. While research hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking. A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of inquiry for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance in statistical knowledge or science. It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or among variables under certain conditions. Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it is rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted. Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It is also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero difference exists between the two population means or the treatments. Formulation of Testable Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation is one of the most difficult and most crucial step in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following: (i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data, (ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations ,and (iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result. 37 Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study. A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own merit. Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a logical foundation. Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis: The researcher deals with reality on two levels; 1. The Operational Level: On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order to operate with the reality necessary to do researches. 2. The Conceptual Level: On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result to be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a particular study and thus to be of wider applicability. Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level and vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in applying their findings as well. The 38 process of making conceptual contrasts between operational programme is called conceptualization or dimensionalization. Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis: Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient of the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis: 1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework. 2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically. 3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to phrase the hypothesis properly. 39  7 Sampling A survey may be conducted by either of two methods 1. Census Method or Parametric method and 2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method. 1. Census method: It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are collected for each and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and exact information as no unit is left out. 2. Sampling method: Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It works with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with minimum of cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time, money and material. Its more popular in research work. Population: Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group from which a sample is to be formed. The term population or universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and children) is known as population. 40 But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group. For example secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc. Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as representative of that population. One type of population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target population. By target population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target population. By target population, also called universe, we mean all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people , events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of our research. The first step in sampling is to define the target population. Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the population, it is the general situation. The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population are termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample observation known as Statistics and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known as parameters. Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics. Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common in physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral and social research. It makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has equal chance to be taken into the sample. Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of material which has been selected in the belief that it 41 will be representative of the whole aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.” Assumptions of Sampling: 1. Homogeneity amidst complexity: Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every unit appears to be different from another. But at the same time they also possess similarities in many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the possibility of such representative types in the whole population that makes sampling possible. 2. Possibility of Representative Selection: Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory of probability and law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lays down that a group of objects chosen at random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics of that large group (universe) by L. R. Conner. 3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e. needed in case of large scale observations. Because it is practically impossible to achieve because of errors in measurement, collection of data , its analysis, interpretation. Definition: “A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.” P. Y. Young 42 A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of population which is selected for the express purpose of representing the population. By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences about characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Sampling,”It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this purpose, the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.” Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling is a part of the strategy of research. Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is minimum. Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller representation of a larger whole.” W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more than a fragment of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the phenomenon i.e. generalization. David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.” Need of Sampling: 1. Economy of time. 2. Economy of money. 3. True detailed knowledge. 4. Utility in experimental study. 43  5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory. Advantages of Sampling: 1. It has a greater adaptability. 2. It is an economical technique. 3. It has high speed for generalization. 4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy in the observation”. 5. This technique has great accuracy. 6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work. 7. It has a greater scope in the field of research. 8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection. Disadvantages or Limitation of Sampling: 1. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy) 2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample. 3. Need of eligible researchers. 4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous population. 5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible. Essentials of an Ideal Sample:  Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units.  Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.  Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample. 44  Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents the whole data adequately. In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable derivation of conclusions applicable to the whole data. Economical in terms of time and money. High level of reliability. Characteristics of a Good Sample: 1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties. 2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe. 3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice. 4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation. 5. A good sample maintains accuracy.It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not involve errors. 6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely linked with true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a good representative of the population. 7. A good sample has the practicability for research. 45  Types of Sampling Designs/Methods of Sampling Sampling A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling A-5 Purposive Sampling A-6 Cluster Sampling A-7 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling It is a method of sampling which gives In the absence of any idea of 1. the probability that a sample is probability the method of sampling is representative of population. known as non-probability sampling. It is generally used in action Probability sampling is generally used researches in which one studies a 2. in fundamental research in which the class without any generalization purpose is to generalize the results. purpose. It refers from the sample as well as 3. There is no idea of population. the population. Every individual of the population has There is no probability of selecting 4. equal probability to be taken into the any individual. sample. It may be representative of the 5. It has free distribution. population. Its observations (data) are used for the The observations are not used for 6. inferential purpose. generalization purpose. 7. Inferential or parametric statistics are Non-inferential or non-parametric 46  used. statistics are used. There is no risk for drawing 8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion. conclusions. It is based on Law of probability sampling i.e. Law of Statistical It is not based on law of probability 9. Regularity and Law of Inertia of the sampling. Large Sample. Probability Sampling: G.C. Halmstadter, “A probability sample is one that has been used selected in such a way that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.” Probability sampling is of different types: (1) Simple Random Sampling : It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing. Randomization is done by using the following techniques: (a) Tossing a coin (b) Throwing a dice (b) Lottery method (d) Blind folded method (c) Tippett’s table method Merits of Randomization: 1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population. 2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error. 3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose. 4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose. 47 Demerits of Randomization: 1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample. 2. It does not use the knowledge about the population. 3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample. (2) Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method requires the complete information about the population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample: Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N Now we select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population should be arranged in any systematic way. Merits: 1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample. 2. It reduces the field cost. 3. Inferential statistics may be used. 4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population. 5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations. Demerits: 1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list by different individuals. 2. Knowledge of population is essential. 3. Information of each individual is essential.. 48  4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness. 5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample. (3) Stratified Sampling: It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique, the researcher divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work. Stratified sampling may be of three types; (a) Disproportionate: Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics. (b) Proportionate: It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method. (c) Optimum allocation: Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the 49 population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation sample. Merits: (i) It is a good representative of the population. (ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling. (iii) It is an objective method of sampling. (iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose. Demerits: (i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification. (ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification. (iii) It is costly and time consuming method. (iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the other. (v) There is a risk of generalization. (4) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling: Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied. To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to 50 obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling. This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further. Merits: (i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a number of observations. (ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error. (iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample. Demerits: (i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small sample. (ii) This technique is time consuming and costly. (iii) Its planning and administration is more complicated. (5) Multi Stage Sampling: This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the multi stage sampling. Merits: (i) It is a good representative of the population. 51  (ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods. (iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling. (iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose. Demerits: (i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling. (ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages. (iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling. (6) Cluster Sampling: To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample. Merits: (i) It may be a good representative of the population. (ii) It is an easy method. (iii) It is an economical method. (iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education. (v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose. Demerits: (i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors. (ii) It is not comprehensive. 52 Non-Probability Sampling Method: Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called non probability samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be; (1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling: The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups which are used as samples of a population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods. Merits: (i) It is very easy method of sampling. (ii) It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences. (iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method. Demerits: (i) It is not representative of the population. (ii) It is not free from errors. (iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used. (2) Judgment Sampling: This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population. Here group may also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be self-evident. Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is highly risky. 53 Merits: (i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling. (ii) This method of sampling is economical. Demerits: (i) This technique is objective. (ii) It is not free from errors. (iii) It includes uncontrolled variation. (iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization is not possible. (3) Purposive Sampling: The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are considered important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables. Merits: (i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects. (ii) Better control of significant variables. (iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched. (iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample. Demerits: (i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable. (ii) Knowledge of population is essential. (iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects. (iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics. (v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population. 54 (4) Quota Sampling: This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the basis of judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in municipal surveys. Merits: (i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling. (ii) It is an easy sampling technique. (iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys. Demerits: (i) It is not a representative sample. (ii) It is not free from errors. (iii) It has the influence of regional , geographical and social factors. (5) Snowball Sampling: The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study proceeds. The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow computation of estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance. For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand of cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be identified to be the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of more subjects and the sample goes on increasing. 55 Merit: Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non- probabilistic can be converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage. Demerits: Sampling errors may creep in. (6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling: Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of available information, these mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given characteristics. The controls in such samples are usually identified as representative areas (city, country, state, district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex, marital status, socio-economic status, race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors, teachers etc.). These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes such as amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-to this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in satisfaction. Purposive sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be included in the sample in each group is done purposively rather than by random method. 56  8 Tools of Data Collection A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests are the tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in data collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the collection of certain type of information. One has to select from the available tools those which will provide data he seeks for testing hypothesis. It may happen that existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so researcher should modify them or construct his own. Different tools used for data collection may be; 1. Questionnaires 2. Interviews 3. Schedules 4. Observation Techniques 5. Rating Scales 1. Questionnaire: It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as; “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired.” Barr, Davis & Johnson 57 “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself.” W. J. Goode & K. Hall The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices.It is easy to prepare and to administer. The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular reason to see them personally. Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire: 1. It deals with an important or significant topic. 2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter. 3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports and records. 4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data. 5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed. 6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified. 7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions. 8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex. 9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided. 10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided. 58 11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives. 12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret. Merits of Questionnaire Method: 1. it’s very economical. 2. It’s a time saving process. 3. It covers the research in wide area. 4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses. 5. It is most reliable in special cases. Demerits of Questionnaire Method: 1. Through this we get only limited responses. 2. Lack of personal contact. 3. Greater possibility of wrong answers. 4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more. 5. Sometimes answers may be illegible. 6. It may be useless in many problems. The Interview: Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information. “Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.” W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt “The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned.” Vivien Palmar 59 “The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger.” P.V. Young In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their respective impression upon each other. The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment supervenes between them. In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his truthfulness of responses. Difference between Interview and Questionnaire Questionnaire Method Interview Method 1. Data is gathered indirectly. 1. Data is gathered directly. 2. No face to face contact between two. 2. There is face to face contact between 3. Interviewer should have the general interviewer and interviewee. knowledge of the topic. 3. Skillful interviewer is needed. 4. Interviwee will hesitate to write it. 4. Some confidential information can 5. We get written information only. also be obtained. 5. We get written and oral both type of information. Characteristics of an Interview: 1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, discover the origin of problem. 60 2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person. 3. It can make cross questioning possible. 4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned. 5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics. 6. It has flexibility. 7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged through cross questioning. 8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer. 9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies. Merits of Interview: 1. Direct research. 2. Deep research 3. Knowledge of past and future. 4. Knowledge of special features. 5. Mutual encouragement is ossible. 6. Supra-observation is possible. 7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes. 8. Examination of known data. Disadvantage of Interview: 1. May provides misleading information. 2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced) 3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer. 4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interwee and interviewer. 5. One sided and incomplete research. 61  6. Art rather than science. Schedule: When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as schedule. “Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another.” W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly. According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test the hypothesis.” Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis. In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role. As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed. Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has not any great significance. Important Features of Schedule: 1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are noted down by him. 2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be attractive. 3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research. 62 4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements essential to the analysis. 5. It aims at delimiting the subject. 6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing the questions. Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory. Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule; 1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions. 2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked. 3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions. 4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic. 5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level. 6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in schedule. Merits of Schedule: 1. Higher percentage of responses. 2. Possible to observe personality factors. 3. Through interview personal contact is possible. 4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule. 5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there. 6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee. Observation Technique: This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the behaviors of children. 63 It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situations. “It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group behaviours and social institutions problems are evaluated.” C. Y. Younge “Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal organs.” C.A. Mourse The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original form, is known as observation. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations and activities. Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when one is interested in their overt behavior. In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as they think, they do but this is often different from what they actually do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular part in survey procedure. Characteristics of Observation Schedule: According to Jahoda it has many characteristics; 1. It serves a formulated research purpose. 2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly. 64  3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions. 4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity , reliability and precision. 5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem. 6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene. 7. It employs own experiences. 8. It establishes cause-effect relationship. 9. It is an objective technique of data collection. 10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique. 11. It is formal as well as informal technique. 12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection. Advantages: 1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information. 2. We get first hand data through this method. 3. Record of observation is also available immediately. 4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method. 5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct information. Limitations: 1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly. 2. It is subjective method. 3. It is very time consuming process. 4. Costly so energy consuming also. 65  5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes conscious. 6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful. 7. Observer should be trained and experienced. Rating Scale: Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which such judgments may be quantified. “Rating is an essence and direct observation.” Ruth Strong “A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable.” Von Dallen Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and attributes. A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the expression of opinion concerning a trait. The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and even by the self as well. The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself. In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and perceptions. Advantages: 1. Writing reports to parents. 66  2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges. 3. Finding out students’ needs. 4. Making recommendations to employers. 5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child. 6. Stimulating effect upon the rates. Limitations: 1. Difference in rating abilities. 2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating. 3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only. 4. Average superior than single. 5. Impact of emotions. 6. Limits of self-rating. 7. Over rating. 8. Limits of rating of specific qualities. 9. Limits of justifications. Activities Involved in Data Collection: Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality. Access to Data: Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the institutions or the persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any board or university may not have access to confidential data. 67 Adequate Standard: The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled. (i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of validity. In other words the data should, ensure what they claimed to measure. (ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error. The following types of error are possible in data collection; (a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/ instrument. (b) Error of bias. (c) Deliberate falsehood. (d) Distortion of facts. (e) Random errors. (iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that proper generalization could be made. (iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under which the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording method should be used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms; (a) notes of the researcher (b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the experiment or conducting a field study (c) Interview notes (d) Responses to questionnaires (e) Recording on tape recorder. (f) Video cameras (g) Transcribing data for computer input 68 Data Organization: Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that an extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the following; (a) Sources of data (b) Conditions under which data were gathered. There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable prospects of retrieval when required. Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data: The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement, field observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules etc. The secondary data can be collected from technical publications such as manuals,