Research Method (Chap 2) PDF

CHAPTER 4&5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Characteristics of a Good Literature Review REVIEW A literature review plays a critical role in academic research...

CHAPTER 4&5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Characteristics of a Good Literature Review REVIEW A literature review plays a critical role in academic research by summarizing, synthesizing, and critically analysing the Introduction existing body of work on a particular topic. To ensure its A literature review is a summary of research literature quality, a good literature review must exhibit several relevant to the current study. characteristics. Below are these key attributes, elaborated with facts, explanations, and examples. Purpose: To discover existing knowledge, identify gaps, and compare findings. 1. A good review of literature must be comprehensive. According to Abdellah and Levine, the material gathered in A good literature review must encompass all relevant literature review should be included as a part of the studies, theories, and data. It ensures that the researcher has research data, since it influences the problem and research considered a wide range of perspectives and avoids omitting design it can be used to compare the results and findings critical contributions. for the current study. Fact: A comprehensive review avoids research gaps DEFINITION and provides a holistic view of the topic. Example: When reviewing climate change, a - A literature review is an assessment of a body of comprehensive review would include data from research that addresses a research question. meteorological studies, economic analyses of climate - Burns and Grove (2005): An organized written policies, and social impacts in vulnerable presentation of what has been published on a topic by communities. the scholars. - Taylor (2011): A systematic written presentation of published works by accredited scholars. 2. It should be systemic. Example: A literature review on the effectiveness of e-learning platforms should use headings like A systematic literature review follows a structured "Introduction," "Methodology," and "Findings," with approach in identifying, evaluating, and analysing sources. smooth transitions between sections and concise summaries of each study. Explanation: A systematic process ensures that the review is organized and replicable. It involves 4. It should be free from bias. defining clear inclusion and exclusion criteria, which minimizes the risk of missing relevant studies or A literature review must objectively evaluate sources including irrelevant ones. without favouring specific studies or viewpoints. Example: A researcher studying renewable energy adoption might use the PRISMA framework to Explanation: Bias can distort the findings and systematically search databases like Scopus and Web undermine the credibility of the review. Including a of Science for peer-reviewed articles published after balanced representation of studies ensures fairness and reliability. 2015. Example: In a review of economic theories on 3. It should be well written. unemployment, both Keynesian and New Classical Clarity, coherence, and proper organization are hallmarks of theories should be discussed, along with their a good literature review. respective evidence and criticisms. Explanation: A well-written review presents Conclusion information logically, making it easy for readers to A literature review plays a vital role in academic research, follow. Proper use of language and grammar offering a thorough understanding of existing knowledge enhances readability and ensures professional and guiding future studies. A well-executed review not only quality. strengthens the credibility of the research but also ensures ❖ It makes researcher know what research has already meaningful contributions to the academic community. been done in a particular area to avoid duplication. ❖ It is necessary to narrow the problem to be studied. Factors Affecting Review of Literature ❖ Identify questions a body of research does not 1. Researcher’s Background answer. -An experienced researcher finds it easy to prepare a ❖ Provides insights into methodologies, theories, and review of literature than a beginner. tools. 2. Complexity of the research project -It is easy to collect review of literature for simple and Types of Review of Literature easy research projects than complex ones. Narrative or Traditional Review: 3. Availability of resources -Availability of resources like computer, internet facility, Definition: Summarizes and synthesizes literature on a specific topic. online and offline journal subscription makes it easy to Purpose: Provides a broad understanding of a topic without prepare a good review of literature. focusing on specific methods or systematic searches. Systematic Review: Purpose of Review of Literature Definition: A structured and pre-defined process for reviewing literature that aims to minimize bias. ❖ It helps to identify what is already known about a Purpose: Answers a specific research question by research problem. comprehensively identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing all relevant studies. ❖ It helps to build on previous knowledge. ❖ Many published research studies contain Meta-Analysis: recommendation for future research, from which we Definition: A statistical technique that combines the results can get idea for a new research study. of multiple studies to produce a single conclusion.  Purpose: Provides a higher statistical power and summarizes Book Chapters: Individual sections in edited findings quantitatively. volumes analyzing specific issues. Newspapers and Magazines: Articles summarizing Sources of Review of Literature events or research findings. 1. Primary Sources Journals: Review articles that summarize and analyze multiple studies. Primary sources are original works written by the Wikipedia: While useful for initial background researchers who conducted the study or developed the information, its credibility should be verified. theory. These are firsthand accounts and include: 3. Tertiary Sources Research Articles: Peer-reviewed journal publications presenting original studies. Tertiary sources offer general background information to Unpublished Theses/Dissertations: Academic work help narrow or broaden the research focus. These are not from graduate and doctoral students. direct research sources but rather reference tools. Examples Personal Diaries and Records: Firsthand include: observations and notes. Reports: Official documents or research reports Encyclopedias: Comprehensive overviews of topics. detailing investigations. Dictionaries: Definitions and explanations of terms. Databases: Platforms indexing multiple sources 2. Secondary Sources (e.g., Cochrane, PubMed). Bibliographies: Lists of references compiled by These provide secondhand interpretations or summaries of other researchers. research conducted by others. They are useful for understanding broader perspectives when primary sources 4. Electronic Sources are unavailable. Examples include: Electronic resources have revolutionized literature reviews, Books: Textbooks summarizing research and offering easy access to vast amounts of information. But theories. sometimes it can be time consuming & unpredictable because there are many website & web pages that can lead Abstract Collections: Summaries of research, such to information overload & confusion. Example include: as Nursing Research Abstracts or Dissertation Abstracts International. Search Engines: Tools like Google, Yahoo, and Indexed References: Printed indexes MSN. like Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Databases: Specific platforms for academic Literature and Index Medicus. research, such as: Journals and Periodicals: o PubMed: Medical and biological sciences. o National Journals: E.g., Indian Journal of o MEDLINE: Health and life sciences. Nursing Studies and Nursing & Midwifery o CINAHL: Nursing and allied health. Research Journal. o ERIC: Education and research. o International Journals: E.g., Western o Cochrane Database: Health-related Journal of Nursing Research and Advances in systematic reviews. Nursing Sciences. o PsycINFO: Psychology and behavioral Books: Both textbooks and specialized academic sciences. volumes. o Registry of Nursing Research: Sigma Theta Tau International library. 6. Other Sources Online Journals: Websites offering access to peer- reviewed journals (e.g., Nursing Research, American Magazines and Newspapers: For insights into Journal of Nursing). public opinions or recent trends. Conference Papers and Proceedings: Presentations 5. Printed Sources from academic gatherings. Unpublished Research: Includes gray literature While electronic sources dominate today, printed sources such as internal reports. are still valuable, especially in disciplines where older Government Documents: Policy papers or literature is significant. Examples include: statistical data from official agencies. Steps of a Literature Review o Include an introduction, conclusion, and necessary revisions to connect themes 1. Stage I – Annotated Bibliography: effectively. o Researchers read relevant literature and create a brief critical summary (annotation) for each Content of the Review source. o This process lays the groundwork for 1. Introduction identifying trends, themes, or gaps. 2. Stage II – Thematic Organization: Purpose: o Organizing literature into common themes, o Define or identify the general topic, issue, or subthemes, or categories. area of concern. o Ensures coherence among themes and aligns o Provide an appropriate context for reviewing them chronologically if applicable. the literature. 3. Stage III – More Reading: Key Features: o With a clearer understanding of the topic, o Highlight overall trends in the published researchers seek additional relevant literature. literature, conflicts in theory, methodology, o Irrelevant or less critical materials are set aside evidence, or gaps in research. during this stage. o Establish the writer’s point of view for 4. Stage IV – Write Individual Sections: reviewing the literature. o Writing begins with thematic sections using o Explain the criteria used for analyzing and the gathered annotations. comparing literature. o Grouping and synthesizing related articles o Clarify the organization of the review (e.g., ensures logical flow and coherence. sequence or thematic approach). 5. Stage V – Integrate Sections: o Combine all sections into a single cohesive 2. Body narrative. Purpose:  o Summarize and analyze the reviewed literature o Identify gaps, inconsistencies, or systematically. methodological flaws in the existing research. Key Features: o Provide insight into the relationship between o Group research studies and other literature by the central topic and the broader field. common denominators: o Suggest areas for future research or questions § Methodological approaches (e.g., that remain unanswered. qualitative or quantitative). § Author conclusions, specific purposes, or objectives. § Chronology or progression over time. o Summarize individual studies as needed, focusing on their importance to the topic. o Use "umbrella" sentences at the beginning of paragraphs and brief summaries at intermediate points to ensure clarity. o Establish connections between different studies and identify patterns or inconsistencies. 3. Conclusion Purpose: o Summarize the major contributions of the literature reviewed. Key Features: o Evaluate the current state of the research in terms of methodologies, theories, and findings. LECTURE 2: THE RESEARCH PROCESS: COMING TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS: COMING TO TERMS TERMS 1. From Problem to Solution 2. Noting an interesting question CHAPTER OBJECTIVES - STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO: 3. Stating the question in such a way that it can be answered 4. The Language of Research 1. Describe the research process from formulating questions to seeking and finding solutions. VARIABLES 2. Describe the difference between dependent and independent variables. Variables are a class of outcomes that can take on more than one 3. Identify other types of variables that may interfere with the value. The more precisely a variable is measured, the more useful research process. the measurement is. 4. Define a hypothesis and describe how it works. 5. Discuss the value of the null hypothesis. 1. DEPENDENT VARIABLES: The outcomes of a research 6. Describe the differences between a null hypothesis and study. Depend on the experimental treatment. research hypothesis. 2. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Treatments or conditions 7. List the characteristics of a good hypothesis. 8. Explain the difference between a sample and the population. under control of the researcher. Levels - at least two different 9. Define statistical significance and explain its importance. values of the independent variable must be present. From Problem to Solution All About Variables WHAT MAKES GOOD VARIABLES? 1. Other Important Types of Variables 2. Hypotheses 1. Independent variable is not confounded. 3. Samples and Populations 2. Levels do not vary systematically with other variables. 4. The Concept of Significance 3. Dependent variable is sensitive to changes in the independent variable.  Ø Ho: µ1 = µ2 Ø Ho: Null hypothesis OTHER IMPORTANT TYPES OF VARIABLES Ø µ1: Theoretical average of population 1 1. Control Variable: A variable that is related to the dependent Ø µ2: Theoretical average of population 2 variable, the influence of which needs to be removed. (Has a potential influence on the dependent variable) PURPOSE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS 2. Extraneous Variable: A variable that is related to the Ø A starting point for analysis. dependent variable or independent variable that is not part of Ø Accepted as true absent other information. Ø Assumes that chance caused any observed differences. the experiment. (Has an unpredictable impact on the Ø Provides a benchmark for comparison. dependent variable) 3. Moderator Variable: Variables related to independent or THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS dependent variables and hiding the true relationship between E.g.: a statement of inequality independent and dependent variables. A relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables. HYPOTHESIS: REFLECTS THE GENERAL PROBLEM H1: ≠ UNDER STUDY H1: Research hypothesis Ø Theoretical average of population 1 Restates the general problem in a form that is precise enough Ø Theoretical average of population 2 to allow testing. Ø X1 X2 NULL HYPOTHESIS Ø States that there is no relationship between the independent DIRECTIONAL VS. NONDIRECTIONAL RESEARCH and dependent variables under study. HYPOTHESES  1. Nondirectional Research Hypothesis 8. Research Groups are different, but direction is not specified. H1: ≠ WHAT MAKES A GOOD HYPOTHESIS? 2. Directional Research Hypothesis 1. Is stated in declarative form Groups are different, and direction is specified. 2. Posits a relationship between variables H1: > 3. Reflects theory or literature H1: < 4. Is brief and to the point X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 5. Is testable PURPOSE OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS Directly tested during research process 1. The SAMPLE is a representative portion of a POPULATION To compare against null hypothesis 2. The POPULATION is the entire group of interest 3. Results from the SAMPLE should generalize to the DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NULL AND RESEARCH POPULATION HYPOTHESES 1. Equality between variables SIGNIFICANCE 2. Refers to population Observed differences (PROBABLY) result from the treatment 3. Indirectly tested and not from chance Influences other than the treatment 4. Stated using Greek symbols (µ) Significance level = risk associated with not being 100% 5. Refers to sample certain that null hypothesis is incorrect 6. Inequality between variables 7. Research LECTURE 3: How to Write a Research Proposal, Research 5.​ Telling – contributes to the improvement and Project Reports, and Academic Research understanding of educational theory and practice. Problem Statement 1.​ The research problem serves as the starting point for How research problems differ for quantitative and the research and is a unifying thread that runs qualitative research throughout all the elements of the research endeavour. Use quantitative research if your research problem requires 2.​ A distinct “statement of the question or issue that is to you to: be investigated” 1.​ Measure variables 3.​ You need to clearly identify the problem or knowledge 2.​ Assess the impact of these variables on an outcome 3.​ Test theories or broad explanations gap that your research is responding to. 4.​ Apply results to many people 4.​ Answer the question: “What is the research gap(s) that needs to be filled?” and/or “What is the problem that Use qualitative research if your research problem requires you to: needs to be solved?” 1.​ Learn about the views of the people you plan to study 2.​ Assess a process over time What to consider in selecting a research problem? 3.​ Generate theories based on participant perspectives 4.​ Obtain detailed information about a few people or 1.​ Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level of research sites​ research skills, needed resources, and time restrictions 2.​ Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants. An Effective Problem Statement 3.​ Researchable – can be investigated through the ​ Conciseness and clarity. ​ Contextualizes the problem. collection and analysis of data. ​ Describes the specific issue to be researched. 4.​ Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it ​ Establishes relevance and necessity of the study. ​ Sets a direction for research objectives to follow. throughout the research process. Research Questions SMART Criteria for Research Objectives Defined as specific inquiries aimed at addressing problem ​ Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, areas. Time-constrained. Guidelines for Writing Research Objectives Strong Research Questions Should Be: ​ Should be concise, logically sequenced, and realistic. ​ Engaging and relevant to scholarly debates. ​ Should be phrased in operational terms and use action ​ Focused, feasible, and specific. verbs. ​ Complex enough to warrant investigation. Example Research Objectives Steps for Developing Research Questions ​ To describe factors affecting farmers' decisions. 1.​ Choose an interesting general topic. ​ To budget pollution reduction strategies. 2.​ Conduct preliminary research. ​ To assess the habitat of specific wildlife. 3.​ Consider the target audience. ​ Based on existing theories/literature. 4.​ Formulate initial questions. ​ Brief and testable. 5.​ Evaluate the clarity and focus of these questions. 6.​ Commence research activities. Frameworks in Research ○​ ​ Theoretical Framework: Developed based on Types of Research Questions established theories that guide the research. ​ Conceptual Framework: Visual representation of Categories include: interrelated ideas, facilitated by prior theoretical ​ Descriptive, Comparative, Correlational, Exploratory, frameworks. Explanatory, Evaluation, and Action research. Importance of Frameworks Research Objectives ​ Aids in organizing complex ideas and providing Defines what the research aims to achieve: structure to research. ​ Explains the approach to methodology and data ​ Focus, limits, steps involved. collection/analysis. ​ Avoid unnecessary data collection. Lecture 7 : Questionnaire Design ​ Questions are ordered sensibly (Collecting primary data using questionnaires) ​ Transitions are used from one topic to the next ​ Examples are given when necessary 7.1 Questionnaire 5. The Importance of Cover Letter 1. Definition - Techniques of data collection in which each ​ Informs the recipient about the research person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a ​ Establishes the importance of the research predetermined order ​ Makes the recipient a part of the research ​ Example: 2. Basic Assumptions ​ Does not make unreasonable demands upon the respondent. ​ Does not have a hidden purpose. ​ Requests information that respondents presumably have. ​ Contains interesting questions. ​ Does not request information that could be obtained by other means. 3. The Questions ​ The questionnaire contains questions that can be answered. ​ The questionnaire contains questions that are straightforward. 4. The Format ​ The presentation is attractive, professional, and easy to understand ​ Questions and pages are clearly numbered ​ Directions are clear and explicit ​ Questions are objective 6. When to use questionnaires? 9. Data Collection Key Factors ​ For explanatory (cause & effect) or descriptive ​ Precisely defined questions (unlike in-depth interviews) research (identify & describe phenomena) ​ Representative and accurate sampling ​ Linked with other methods in a multiple-methods ​ An understanding of the organisational context research design (good to link with other methods) ​ Relationships between variables – dependent, independent and extraneous ​ To collect responses from a large sample prior to ​ Types of variable (Opinion, behaviour, attribute) quantitative analysis 10. Ensuring essential data are collected 7. Types of questionnaire Data requirements table 8. Choice of questionnaire (Self-Admin vs. Interviewer 11. Designing the questionnaire Admin) Stages that must occur if a question is to be valid and Related Factors reliable ​ Characteristics of the respondents and access ​ Respondents answers not being contaminated or distorted ​ Size of sample required for analysis ​ Type and number of questions required ​ Available resources including use of computer software Assessing Validity B. ​ Internal – ability of your q/s to measure what you intend it to measure. ​ Content – questions provides adequate coverage ​ Criterion – related (predictive) – can the questions predict behaviour ​ Construct – dimensions that may measure certain attitudes, personality etc. Testing for reliability- the 3 stage process C. ​ Test re-test – collect under a different conditions and test the data reliability ​ Internal consistency – compare the data from one questions to other questions ​ Alternative form – put in other similar questions to double check 12. Examples of question types A. D. E. 15. Explaining the purpose and testing Key points ​ The covering letter ​ Introducing and closing the questionnaire ​ Pilot testing and assessing validity 16. Administering the questionnaire. Key points ​ Internet and intranet-mediated responses F. ​ Postal questionnaires ​ Delivery and Collection ​ Telephone questionnaires ​ Structured interviews SUMMARY 13. Designing individual questions Other Considerations ​ Adopting or adapting existing questions – remember to check copyright ​ Question wording – avoid misreading questions ​ Translating questions into other languages ​ Question coding 14. Constructing the questionnaire Main Considerations ​ Order and flow of questions ​ Questionnaire layout Lecture 6 : Sampling Strategies 3. When is sampling used? 6.1 Population and Samples ​ A big population size (100,000 managers). ​ We hardly know who makes up the entire population. 1. Definitions ​ Cost and Time Constraints Population larger group from which individuals are ​ There is a lot of error to control and monitor selected to participate in a study. ​ Lists are rarely up to date Census surveys every element in the population. ​ Destruction of sampling Unit Sample representative portion of a population. ​ Sample data is sufficient for decision making Survey a research strategy that collects standardized data from a large number of respondents. 4. Sampling For Quantitative And Qualitative Studies Sampling list of all the units of the population of interest. Frame 2. When is sampling not used? ​ Usually for a population size of fewer than 50. ​ It is more appropriate to do a census study. ​ For questionnaire surveys through the mail or internet (500-1000). 5. Steps in Sampling 1. Identify target population 2. Determine sampling frame 3. Determine sampling strategy 4. Determine sampling technique 5. Determine sample size 6. Select actual sampling unit 6. Identify the Target Population 1. Probability and Non-probability Sampling ​ The target population of a research topic is defined by the researcher and needs to be clearly identified at the beginning of a study. ​ The study should be based on a clear understanding of who, what is of interest and the type of information required from that population. 6.2 Determine Sampling Strategy Purpose- to select sampling units (e.g., female consumers) as a sample (e.g., 500 female consumers) from the population (e.g., 10 million). 2. Probability Sampling Techniques (4) A. Simple Random Sampling Technique 1. Follows a lucky draw procedure, where every unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. 2. How to choose a simple random sample? ​ Define the population ​ List all members of the population ​ Assign numbers to each member of the population ​ Use criterion to select a sample/ Define sampling framework ​ Determine the desired sample size (10). B. Systematic Random Sampling Technique 1.The first unit is selected at random (following random numbers). 2. Then, the subsequent unit is picked with kth interval. 3. Say k=3 and the first random number is 3 (from a random table). 4. You simply pick sampling unit numbers 03, 06, 09, 12 and so on. C. Stratified Random Sampling Technique 1. The purpose of this technique is to provide fair representation of subgroups. 2. First, the population is broken into strata (homogeneous groups). 3. Elements in a strata share similar characteristics. 4. Then, within each strata list, a sampling unit is picked 3. Non Probability Sampling Techniques (4) randomly. -​ sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. A. Convenient Sampling Technique 1. Based on the convenience of the researcher. 2. Thus, the selection is of those who happen to be at the data-collection venue. 3. Units are selected conveniently. 4. Elements not at the data-collection venue have no chance D. Cluster Random Sampling of being selected. 1. Population is broken into heterogeneous groups or clusters. 2. Each cluster consists of units with very different characteristics. 3. For example, Malaysia has 13 states, representing 13 clusters where each cluster has male and female teachers. Within each cluster, a unit is selected randomly (following random numbers).  Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages It’s relatively easy to get a Inability to generalize. Consumes minimum time for Not a scientific method of sample. execution. sampling. It’s inexpensive, compared to The possibility of under- or Allows researchers to The preconceived notions of other methods. over-representation of the approach their target market a researcher can influence population. directly. the results. Participants are readily Biased results. Research technique involves available. a high amount of ambiguity. B. Judgemental Sampling Technique C. Quota Sampling Technique 1. Researchers select the samples based purely on the 1. Its purpose is to have fair representation of subgroups in the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. sample. 2. Imposes judgement 2. In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota. 3. For example, Malaysians who have travelled to 10 countries or more, as they are presumed to have rich information on 3. Example: 40% female and 60% male in a population issues of interest (e.g., travel experience). It is very similar to Stratified Sampling. 4. Thus, it approaches units that meet the criteria conveniently. 4. Difference- Stratified Sampling selects units from each strata randomly, while Quota, units within each subgroup are selected conveniently until the quota is achieved.  Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages It’s quicker to find samples. Sampling bias and margin of error. Ensure some degree of Degree of representativeness of all the strata in generalizability is Cost effective. Lack of cooperation. the population. questionable. Sample hesitant subjects. Degree of generalizability is Easy to administer. Sample selection questionable. is not random Useful method when probability Potential for sampling techniques are not possible. selection bias. Accounts for population proportions. Performed quickly & cost-effective C. Snowball Sampling Technique 1. The initial respondents are identified conveniently through friends and any subsequent respondent is referred by a first respondent. This is most commonly used when dealing with rare populations (e.g., cancer survivors). 2. Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when ​ No official list of names of the members ​ Difficulty to locate people ​ People who are not willing to be identified ​ Secretiveness about their identity 4. Summary of Sampling Techniques the desired ratio of sample is a general guideline. size to construct numbers should be 20:1 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black 1998). A minimum sample size of Qualitative research that 30 is required for statistical aims to understand a fairly analysis of each category homogeneous population within the overall sample. requires 12 in-depth interviews (Guest et al., 2006). The desired data analysis Fairly heterogeneous method plays a role in population, 25-30 interviews determining sample size. are needed (Creswell, 2007). 2. Select the Actual Sampling Unit ​ Select the individual unit for the sample based on the sampling procedure of the chosen sampling technique. ​ Then collect data from the sampling unit (e.g., 6.3 Sampling, Sample Size, and Sampling Error employees, tourists or teachers) using the methods, such as questionnaires, interviews or observations, for primary data collection. 1. Determine Sample Size Quantitative Qualitative Use a sample size calculator The sample size that is available online. requirements usually follow the rule of data saturation. Following a statistical rule, The theoretical sample size 3. Sampling Error 4. Importance of Sampling strategy ​ Sampling errors are statistical errors that arise when a ​ It allows readers to assess the validity of the data sample does not represent the whole population. source. ​ They are the difference between the real values of the ​ Provides ideas to readers on the external validity of the population and the values derived by using samples data. from the population. ​ Allows future researchers to replicate the study and ​ Reducing sampling error is the goal of any sampling provides more evidence about the phenomenon under technique investigation. ​ As sample size increases, sampling error decreases