Developmental Psychology Lecture: Aging & Adulthood

# Developmental Psychology Lecture Eight - Aging and Adulthood - Development across the lifespan ## Learning objectives - Describe research methods (from quantitative Psychology) used to measure the effect of age - Describe age-related changes in brain matter - Describe cognitive age-related c...

# Developmental Psychology Lecture Eight - Aging and Adulthood - Development across the lifespan ## Learning objectives - Describe research methods (from quantitative Psychology) used to measure the effect of age - Describe age-related changes in brain matter - Describe cognitive age-related changes in memory and IQ - Explain the concept of ‘successful ageing' - Identify factors associated with 'successful ageing' - Describe key features of 'andragogy' ## Young adulthood - In the West, it is generally agreed that young people enter adulthood between the ages of 18 and 20. - The growing trend in the West for young people delaying entry into the 'adult world' has led to a new term - emerging adulthood. - This refers to 18-25-year-olds, and is characterised by exploration and experimentation with identity, lifestyle, and career (Arnett, 2006). - (Usually) able to be self-focused due to few duties or commitments to others. - The move from adolescence to adulthood is marked by continuity for most. - For some though, the transition is less straightforward, and the increased responsibility and independence proves difficult to cope with. - Most emerging adults do not see themselves as 'fully fledged adults', but they do not feel like adolescents either. - The timing and sequencing of traditional experiences that represent the process of becoming an adult are more flexible in the twenty-first century. - Results of economic and social changes, as well as government policy change ## Adulthood - For many years middle adulthood was considered to start at the age of 40. - However, as life expectancy keeps increasing, this means 40 is no longer the 'midpoint' of life. - Identifying 'middle age' in social and psychological terms is therefore becoming harder. - Not as well studied as other periods of the lifespan. - Older adulthood is usually considered as beginning at the age of 65. - But attitudes on this are shifting too due to the ageing population. ## Methodologies for lifespan research ### Cross-sectional (between groups) - Takes a 'snapshot' at a single point in time. - Compares between individuals of different ages. - Age's causality is more difficult to ascertain. - No issues with 'drop-outs' and is comparatively cheap. ### Longitudinal (within differences) - Follows individuals over a series of time points. - Compares different times within an individual's life. - Gives a more valid indication of 'change due to age'. - But more costly, more vulnerable to 'drop-outs'. - Need to be mindful that 'cohort effects' will complicate interpretation of simple 'age effects'. ## Neurobiology - The rate (velocity) of neurodevelopment tends to be greatest during infancy. - Grey matter volume peaks in early childhood. - White matter a little later. - But brain mass isn't everything if we think of development as 'learning'. - The brain retains a tremendous capacity for this well after 'peak brain mass'. - Learning occurs through neuroplasticity. - Neuroplasticity is - "The ability of the brain to form and reorganise synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury" * (Fuchs & Flugge, 2014). ## Changes and ageing - cognition - Biological change likely explains some of the natural cognitive decline we all will experience as we age. - Theorised that the degree of neuroplasticity we're able to retain as we age affects how well we can compensate for natural reductions in brain mass. ## Cognitive abilities by age (Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004) - From 25-81, measured with mean T-scores: - Inductive reasoning - largest decline - Spatial orientation - largest decline - Perceptual speed - large decline - Numeric ability - slight decline - Verbal ability - no decline - instead an increase - Verbal memory - large decline - Some cognitive abilities hold up much better than others. ## Cognitive abilities by age - limitations - However, studies have been cross-sectional in design, and so it has been suggested that the age differences are actually caused by a cohort effect. - In other words, brought about because the older adults generally had less formal schooling than most younger adults today. - Longitudinal studies have found that cognitive skills either stay stable or even improve with age. - But could these results be due to practice effects? - In other words, due to learning and experience? ## Inter-individual variability in cognitive decline (Buckner, 2004) - Comparing Person 1 and Person 7 on age (70-95) + cognitive score (-6 - 2) - One shows rapid decline - Seven has pretty well-preserved cognitive function into their 90s ## Cognition and memory - Neurodegenerative diseases become more probable over time ### Alzheimer's Disease - Earlier memories preserve for longer as the hippocampus is affected first - Is irreversible - Gradual decline in skills, gradual deterioration in memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning - Affects mostly over 65s ### Vascular dementia - Memory loss may or may not be a significant symptom and can be less systematic - Depends on where in the brain blood flow is most reduced ## Ageing and Intelligence ### Fluid intelligence - Is a global capacity to reason, learn new things, and think abstractly and solve problems - Shows earlier and steeper decline ### Crystalised intelligence - Based on facts, prior learning, and experiences - Increase with age and is relatively stable into old age ## Aging and intelligence - Voelkle & Lindenberger, 2014 - Measures age (0-90) + T-score (25-70) - Crystalised intelligence (culture-/knowledge- based facet of intelligence) - increases then levels out with a slight decrease - Fluid intelligence (biology-based facet of intelligence) - increases then steadily decreases ## Ageing and intelligence - In individuals over 70 years of age you can predict IQ scores from the number of years they spent in education. - But still weaker relationships with processing speed (Ritchie et al., 2013). - Is this evidence of education helping us retain greater capacity for functional resilience (e.g. neuroplasticity)? - While more elementary cognitive abilities like processing speed are more directly affected by underlying structural changes in the brain due to age? ## Differing views on 'successful ageing' ### Disengagement theory - Gradual retreat and withdrawal from activities ### Activity theory - Maintaining curiosity and interests in activities late into adulthood ### Continuity theory - Continue to use cognitive and physical abilities as much as possible - Adapting to keep ‘using' or 'lose' certain activities - Practice has a protective role for cognitive functioning ## Factors for ‘successful ageing' - Decline is less likely in the absence of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases (Wendell et al., 2009). - Higher socioeconomic status is linked to slower decline (Fotenos et al., 2008). - Being involved in a complex and intellectually stimulating environment promotes good functioning (Valenzuela, Breakspear, & Sachdev, 2007). - Maintaining an active lifestyle can help slow cognitive decline (Richards, Hardy, & Wadsworth, 2003). ## Development as learning - Constructivist perspective - Learning to adapt across the lifespan is something adults do a lot. - We continue to adapt to our environment and its changing demands. - Andragogy is not pedagogy? - Five assumptions of andragogy 1. Self-concept (very self-directed and autonomous) 2. Experience (will draw heavily on past experiences) 3. Readiness to learn (trying to develop within a certain role/profession) 4. Orientation to learning ('just in time' learning, to solve current problems) 5. Motivation to learn (intrinsic) - Implications of andragogy - Four principles should underpin andragogic practice 1. Involve learners in planning and evaluation 2. Experiences (including mistakes) are the basis for learning activities 3. Learning activities are of immediate relevance and use 4. Activities are problem-based ## Summary - It is easy to assume that ageing is all about decline. - But lifespan development is multi-directional