Adult Development & Thinking PDF

Development of the Mind Although Piaget considered formal operational thought the final stage of thinking, evident in adolescence and then continuing in adulthood, many cognitive psychologists find that adult thinking is a cut above adolescent thought. VIDEO ACTIVITY: Brain Development: Emerging Adu...

Development of the Mind Although Piaget considered formal operational thought the final stage of thinking, evident in adolescence and then continuing in adulthood, many cognitive psychologists find that adult thinking is a cut above adolescent thought. VIDEO ACTIVITY: Brain Development: Emerging Adulthood shows the changes that occur in a person’s brain between ages 18 and 25. Adults are more practical and flexible, combining intuition and analysis. This higher stage of thinking is sometimes evident in emerging adulthood, when the brain finally becomes fully grown and connected (Hochberg & Konner, 2020). Postformal Thought Building on Piaget, some developmentalists propose a fifth stage called postformal thought, a “type of logical, adaptive problem-solving that is a step more complex than scientific formal-level Piagetian tasks” (Sinnott, 2014, p. 3). In postformal cognition, “thinking needs to be integrated with emotional and pragmatic aspects, rather than only dealing with the purely abstract” (Labouvie-Vief, 2015, p. 89). As they integrate emotion and pragmatics, postformal thinkers are flexible, with a “more complex, nuanced, and paradoxical” mode of thinking (Gidley, 2016). They consider all aspects of a situation, anticipating problems and dealing with them rather than denying, avoiding, or procrastinating. Thus, postformal thought is practical and creative (Gidley, 2016; Kallio, 2020). One developmental scholar wrote: we hypothesize that there exists, after the formal thinking stage, a fifth stage of post-formal thinking, as Piaget had already studied its basic forms and would have concluded the same thing, had he the time to do so. [Lemieux, 2012, p. 404] Adult brains are not as quick to activate neurons as adolescent brains are: An adult might lose at a video game that requires fast decisions. However, in adulthood, more regions of the brain react to a single event, and longer fibers connect one area with another (Liu et al., 2018). Adult cognition is “integrative thinking,” combining logic and experience (Kallio, 2020). Learning About Health Hundreds of health professionals offer free medical care at this Buddhist temple, likely employing postformal thought as they identify problems and risks and recommend strategies for promoting health. One of the professionals is Daniel Garcia, shown here with the clipboard. POSTFORMAL MATE SELECTION Emerging adults show many signs of that integrative thinking, in their choice of career, in where they live, in how they dress, in what they eat. Their choices do not duplicate what their parents did, but reflect their childhood while moving beyond it. Similar forces are at work with other decisions: where to go to college, what to study, whether or not to begin living with a partner. A combination of emotion and rationality is often evident, with childhood patterns not usually followed. The most obvious example is in romance. Emerging adults still experience the same hormonal reactions that youth have always felt, but they do not rush into partnership. When they do cohabit or marry, they consider nuanced compatibility, which may mean crossing ethnic or religious boundaries. Thus, couple by couple, adult thinking is not determined by childhood culture, parental example, or traditional norms. In 2017, 18 percent of all newlyweds were from different racial or ethnic groups, six times the rate 50 years earlier (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). Those statistics underestimate the rate of intermarriage, because the census lumps to together all people of Hispanic, Black, Asian, and non-Hispanic White heritages, ignoring that a marriage between mates whose heritage is Italian and Swedish, or Mexican and Puerto Rican, or Pakistani and Japanese, is an intermarriage. The people most likely to intermarry have attended college, where they have been encouraged to think for themselves and thus reach postformal cognition. The people least likely to approve of intermarriage are the older, less-educated adults, many of whom married before age 20 (Livingston & Brown, 2017). Intermarriage is not the only sign of postformal marriage choices. One expert on modern marriages suggests that “every marriage is a cross-cultural experience” (Gottman & Gottman, 2017, p. 19) in that everyone has values that need to be expressed and coordinated with their partner. Cognitive maturity may be one reason that, between ages 15 and 35, the older newlyweds are, the less likely they are to divorce. Parents may be distressed that their adult children do not marry and may be romantically involved with someone they would not have chosen, but that may be a sign of postformal thinking, not adolescent rebellion. COMBINING FACTS AND EMOTIONS A characteristic of postformal thought is moving past dual processing to combine objective and subjective thought. Objective thought uses abstract, impersonal logic; subjective thought arises from personal experiences and emotions. Preoperational, egocentric thought is subjective; formal operational thought objective; postformal thought includes both (Gidley, 2016; Kallio, 2020). Ideal Versus Real One indication of adult cognition is the ability to accept some imperfections in oneself, one’s family, and one’s nation. Adult thinkers realize that purely objective, logical thinking is maladaptive when navigating the complexities and commitments of adult life. Instead, emotional sensitivity is needed for productive families, workplaces, and neighborhoods because objective reasoning alone is limited, rigid, and impractical. Similar forces are at work with other decisions: where to go to college, what to study, whether or not to begin living with a partner. A combination of emotion and rationality is often evident, with childhood patterns not usually followed. The most obvious example is in romance. Emerging adults still experience the same hormonal reactions that youth have always felt, but they do not rush into partnership. When they do cohabit or marry, they consider nuanced compatibility, which may mean crossing ethnic or religious boundaries. Thus, couple by couple, adult thinking is not determined by childhood culture, parental example, or traditional norms. In 2017, 18 percent of all newlyweds were from different racial or ethnic groups, six times the rate 50 years earlier (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018). Those statistics underestimate the rate of intermarriage, because the census lumps to together all people of Hispanic, Black, Asian, and non-Hispanic White heritages, ignoring that a marriage between mates whose heritage is Italian and Swedish, or Mexican and Puerto Rican, or Pakistani and Japanese, is an intermarriage. The people most likely to intermarry have attended college, where they have been encouraged to think for themselves and thus reach postformal cognition. The people least likely to approve of intermarriage are the older, less-educated adults, many of whom married before age 20 (Livingston & Brown, 2017). Intermarriage is not the only sign of postformal marriage choices. One expert on modern marriages suggests that “every marriage is a cross-cultural experience” (Gottman & Gottman, 2017, p. 19) in that everyone has values that need to be expressed and coordinated with their partner. Cognitive maturity may be one reason that, between ages 15 and 35, the older newlyweds are, the less likely they are to divorce. Parents may be distressed that their adult children do not marry and may be romantically involved with someone they would not have chosen, but that may be a sign of postformal thinking, not adolescent rebellion. COMBINING FACTS AND EMOTIONS A characteristic of postformal thought is moving past dual processing to combine objective and subjective thought. Objective thought uses abstract, impersonal logic; subjective thought arises from personal experiences and emotions. Preoperational, egocentric thought is subjective; formal operational thought objective; postformal thought includes both (Gidley, 2016; Kallio, 2020). Ideal Versus Real One indication of adult cognition is the ability to accept some imperfections in oneself, one’s family, and one’s nation. Adult thinkers realize that purely objective, logical thinking is maladaptive when navigating the complexities and commitments of adult life. Instead, emotional sensitivity is needed for productive families, workplaces, and neighborhoods because objective reasoning alone is limited, rigid, and impractical. Yet adult thinkers know that subjective thinking is also limited. Truly mature thought involves an interaction between abstract, objective forms and expressive, subjective forms of processing. As an example of such balance, an emerging adult student of mine wrote: Unfortunately, alcoholism runs in my family…. I have seen it tear apart not only my uncle but my family also…. I have gotten sick from drinking, and it was the most horrifying night of my life. I know that I didn’t have alcohol poisoning or anything, but I drank too quickly and was getting sick. All of these images flooded my head about how I didn’t want to ever end up the way my uncle was. From that point on, whenever I have touched alcohol, it has been with extreme caution…. When I am old and gray, the last thing I want to be thinking about is where my next beer will come from or how I’ll need a liver transplant. [Laura, personal communication] Laura’s thinking about alcohol is postformal in that it combines knowledge (e.g., of alcohol poisoning) with emotions (images flooding her head). She is cautious, not abstinent; she has objective awareness of her genetic potential and subjective experience of drinking with her friends. She combines both to reach a conclusion that works for her. She does not need to wait for searing personal experiences (becoming an uncontrollable drinker and reaching despair). If she had such experiences, postformal thinking might help her recognize her need for subjective, emotional support (perhaps an AA group) to bolster her logical awareness. Postformal thought regarding alcohol is apparent in most U.S. adults. Those in their early 20s are more likely than those over age 30 to abuse alcohol and other drugs, perhaps with periods of swearing off all harmful substances, only to begin again. Thus, they zigzag from subjective to objective. With personal experience and learning from others (social norms), cognitive maturity allows occasional, moderate drinking by age 30. Some, for both genetic and social reasons, must stop completely, but most adults can drink a glass or two on occasion. They have moved past the extremes of bingeing and abstinence of their younger selves. Similar moderation is apparent in nutrition. The yo-yo dieter (who gains and loses and gains again) is more often in their 20s (Stevens et al., 2012). Cognitive Growth and Higher Education Education improves health and wealth. College graduates are healthier and wealthier than high school graduates, who themselves are ahead of those without a high school diploma (see Figure 11.4). Diversity can benefit everyone. One catalyst for learning is honest conversations with people from other backgrounds and perspectives. That is what colleges do at their best. A comprehensive study of 48 colleges found that discussions with people of other backgrounds advances thought (Bowman, 2013). Of course, merely sharing a campus does not open up hearts and minds — it may do the opposite. Those particularly likely to be harmed may be those in the minority, if they feel marginalized, or that they are tokens, not equals. Scholars explain that equity demands more than superficial diversity (Puritty et al., 2017). A study that included many nations as well as many colleges within the United States found that humans may initially respond to someone from another group defensively, confirming stereotypes. However, over time, interaction helped people see the common humanity in everyone (X. Bai et al., 2020). Beyond ethnic diversity is political diversity. Many people in the United States bewail political polarization. Many people listen to news that presents only one side of various issues, and then they make friends who agree with them. Fortunately, a basic value of higher education as well as science is to consider alternate views and interpretations. Remember that Piaget stressed that new ideas cause disequilibrium, which leads to deeper thought. That may be why college advances cognitive development. Sometimes college students are portrayed as political radicals, with extreme left or right views. But most are middling, with only 4 percent of incoming first year students considering themselves “far left” and only 2 percent considering themselves “far right.” The most common response to the question “How would you characterize your political views?” was “middle of the road” (41 percent) (Stolzenberg et al., 2019). Love Thy Neighbor This is Larycia Hawkins, a tenured professor at a Christian college (Wheaton) who in 2017 wore a hijab during Advent to express respect for Muslims, because “we worship the same God.” The result: demonstrations of support by many Wheaton students and several bouts of theological questioning by the president of the college, himself a Wheaton graduate (1988). She either was fired or chose to leave (depending on who reports). Nonetheless, every Wheaton student had to think more deeply about the relationship between Christianity and Islam. Overall, diversity within colleges affects the thinking of emerging adults, who are much more accepting of differences than early generations were. Many studies have found that new ideas can lead to intellectual challenge and deeper thought, with benefits lasting for years after graduation (Pascarella et al., 2014). Colleges that make use of their diversity — via curriculum, assignments, discussions, cooperative education, learning communities, residence halls, and so on — stretch student understanding, not only of other people but also of themselves (Harper & Yeung, 2013; Shim & Perez, 2018). Many colleges require that students take a course in diversity, which usually does, but sometimes does not, expand the students’ thinking (Denson et al., 2020). Given history, and the human tendency to see differences as deficits, simply having classmates from various backgrounds does not necessarily expand a young person’s thinking. Appreciation and respect for alternate views needs to be part of the college culture, and discrimination needs to be recognized and stopped (Roksa et al., 2017). Why Learn? Underlying our entire discussion of college, indeed our entire discussion of emerging adult cognition, is the assumption that adults benefit from combining the practical and the theoretical, the emotional and the analytic. Regarding college, adults who have never attended college sometimes believe that “acquiring specific skills and knowledge” is the most important reason to go to college. For some, success is steady employment. That also is the metric used by many legislators. If students hold that perspective, they might seek credentials in expanding fields, such as computer systems, the health professions, or criminal justice. However, developmentalists, most professors, and many college graduates believe that the main purpose of higher education is “personal and intellectual growth.” Therefore, professors hope to foster critical thinking and analysis, as in postformal cognition. Critical thinking, however, requires all of us, textbook authors as well readers of this book, to ask “What is the purpose of higher education?’ Is advanced cognition the answer? Does college do that? CURRENT CONTEXTS But wait. You know that historical conditions have a major impact. Does college still advance cognition? Many recent books criticize college education on exactly those grounds. Notable is a large, longitudinal study of a cross-section of U.S. college students (Arum & Roksa, 2011). Those authors concluded that college produces only half as much critical thinking, analysis, and communication as it did two decades ago. In the first two years of college, the authors report that 45 percent of the students did not advance at all; those who stuck it out to graduate did only a little better. That study discovered many reasons to explain why current college conditions do not foster critical thinking as much as colleges once did. Compared to decades ago, students study less, professors expect less, and classes that require reading at least 40 pages a week or writing 20 pages a semester are not required; administrators cancel them for low enrollment. The data find that students avoid English, history, and philosophy, which require writing and critical thinking, choosing instead business (now the most popular major), more socializing, and less studying. Prospective students are more attracted by the quality of the gym than the library. The researchers of that study traced the students after graduation and found that those who studied less and socialized more were also more likely to have low-paying jobs or no jobs at all. The reason was thought to be their lack of critical thinking, clear communication, or self-discipline (Arum & Roksa, 2014). In other words, college did not teach them what they really needed to learn. There are other disturbing signs among current college students. One is emotional stress, with a review suggesting “unprecedented levels of distress” and increasing rates of suicide and self-harm (Liu et al., 2018). Compared to a generation ago, today’s college students may be more anxious and depressed, not only at high-pressure Ivy League schools, but also in smaller, religious schools. For example, Franciscan University in Steubenville, Ohio, reported a 231-percent increase over five years in visits to the college counseling center. A survey of the entire student body found that a third of the students were anxious or depressed, with about 10 percent of those severely disturbed. Students in their senior year had the highest rates (Beiter et al., 2015). Another indicator of trouble is the use of drugs, specifically Adderall, modafinil, and Ritalin, which might enhance cognition and allow all-night studying before an exam. Use of such drugs varies from college to college: less than 1 percent of students at some institutions and as many as 20 percent at others. Developmentalists worry about such drugs for four reasons: Their use makes it more likely that a student will abuse other drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. The long-term health consequences, especially on the heart and lungs, are unknown. These drugs distort judgment, so students might think that they have become more intelligent or better learners when they actually have not. The drugs are not available to everyone, and that puts users at an unfair advantage. Every review of the research finds that solid, longitudinal data on such drugs are lacking, but that risk-taking and delay discounting (see Chapter 9) may lead students astray. Some authors are highly suspicious of any such drugs, but others suggest that they might aid cognition and point out that coffee is widely used worldwide for similar reasons (Hall et al., 2021). One review that considers the possibility that some drugs might bolster cognition concludes that caution is needed: Currently available evidence suggests that healthy individuals seeking to preserve or enhance their cognitive capabilities should avoid pharmacological cognitive enhancers and focus instead on a healthy and rewarding lifestyle. [Ricci, 2020] Those lifestyle habits (sleep, exercise, and diet, as described a few pages ago) benefit the brain over the months and years, but risk-takers want immediate boosts. Since the brain is not fully mature until the mid-20s, if students take a drug that keeps them awake and then study more, they might credit the drug. Another study of drug use in college found that use of legal and illegal drugs (primarily alcohol and marijuana) increased from enrollment to graduation (the peak was three years after enrollment). Use then slowly declined in the postcollege years (Arria et al., 2017). Thus, college does not necessarily make people wiser. COLLEGE FOR LOW-INCOME STUDENTS Many critics of U.S. education wonder if massification is misguided. Might the economic benefits of college occur not from college itself, but from the fact that children from wealthier families are more likely to go to college, graduate, and find good jobs? That is a plausible hypothesis, because family background compounds the benefits of college. Some of the health and wealth benefits of college are really benefits of family, correlated but not caused by college. But not entirely. When the relationship between family background and adult success is carefully examined, those from low-SES homes who, against the odds, earn a college degree, benefit even more from that degree than those from wealthier backgrounds (Brand & Xie, 2010; Karlson, 2019). Parents who never went to college may underestimate the advantages of college education for their children. Fifty years ago, the income gap between college graduates and others was much less than it is now (Pew Research Center, February 11, 2014). As a result, many parents and grandparents know people who earned good salaries with only a high school education. Although most parents hope that their children will go to college, many low-income parents wonder why they should work an extra job in order to pay tuition. Their college child may study obscure subjects with new friends of ethnic backgrounds, political opinions, or moral values unlike their parents. College may encourage their child to criticize the family diet, break family rules, question religious values. Why pay for that? Ironically, the least expensive colleges (for-profit ones) are less likely to include all the nonclassroom benefits of college education, and thus may appeal to parents and naive students. But they are also less likely to lead to advanced cognition and good jobs, so college credits may not lead to the benefits that once followed the degree. Many young adults have full-time jobs to pay for college. They attend classes but have less time for study, for making friends, for joining clubs or sports teams (Choi, 2018). Thus, they miss parts of the college experience, which may be essential for learning. This raises the question of what lasting effects remote classes during the COVID-19 pandemic will have. Many people speculate that virtual instruction is inferior, because the formal and informal interactions among students and instructors are lacking. We will not know until large-scale, longitudinal research comparing in-person and on-screen learning is conducted. However, there already are reasons to be concerned. College education is more than listening to lectures and writing papers. Remote learning reduces motivation and engagement, especially for students who already are less accustomed to college