Early Adulthood Cognitive Development PDF

Chapter 8. Early Adulthood: Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Early Adulthood Cognitive Development 1. Discuss cognitive development in early adulthood. 2. Define post-formal thought and dialectical thinking. 3. Discuss the impact of educational achievement on a perso...

Chapter 8. Early Adulthood: Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Early Adulthood Cognitive Development 1. Discuss cognitive development in early adulthood. 2. Define post-formal thought and dialectical thinking. 3. Discuss the impact of educational achievement on a person’s life. 4. Discuss career development and employment for men and women. 5. Name the most common and most dangerous jobs. They must recognize the pain of letting go of a world where every question has a right answer and either authorities or logic can be counted on to provide the correct answers, to slowly build a world where the only answers one will have are those one has struggled for—a world where in many cases one will struggle and not find any at all and where in the rest of the cases (in) the answers one finds new questions. (Basseches, 2005, p. 60) The ability to think abstractly develops during adolescence in WEIRD nations. Abstract thinking means understanding concepts that are real but are not directly tied to experiences. For example, concepts such as humor, success and justice are abstract. Thinking abstractly is only one aspect of the way adults think. Though both 15-year-olds and 30-year-olds think abstractly, 30-year-olds are more realistic and practical because they are more experienced. Life experiences teach adults that possibilities do not always become realities. They learn to base decisions on what is realistic and practical, not idealistic, and can make more adaptive choices. Adults are also not as influenced by what others think and because of more advanced perspective taking, adults realize that others do not always share their views. This advanced type of thinking is referred to as Postformal Thought (Sinnott & Sinnott, 1998). Whereas abstract thinking defines Formal Thought Dialectical thinking defines Postformal Thought. With experience, adults come to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position, some good or some bad in a policy or approach, some truth, and some falsehood in any idea. This ability to bring together opposing viewpoints or positions is referred to as dialectical thought (Basseches, 2005). Through Formal Thought adolescents find fundamental fixed realities – the basic elements and unchanging laws of existence. Through Postformal Thought adults understand fundamental processes of change, the importance of perspective and the idea that everything is connected. Studies of adolescents and adults show that understanding different perspectives goes along with formal operational and abstract thinking. Furthermore, formal operational thinking is necessary for individuals to appreciate that contradictory ideas can be brought together (dialectical thinking) (Kramer & Woodruff, 1986). Adults with higher levels of dialectical thinking also have 131 higher levels of the personality traits openness to experience and conscientiousness. Dialectical thinking is also associated with self-regulation skills including emotion regulation. Individuals who think dialectically are more creative (Yang et al., 2010). How to Think and Act Dialectically 1. There is always more than one side to anything that exists. Look for both sides.  Let go of extremes: Change “either-or” to “both-and,” “always” or “never” to “sometimes.” 2. Be aware that you are connected.  Treat others as you want them to treat you. 3. Embrace change.  Practice radical acceptance of change when rules, circumstances, people, and relationships change in ways you don’t like. 4. Change is transactional: Remember that you affect your environment and your environment affects you.  Pay attention to your effect on others and how they affect you.  Remind yourself that all things, including all behaviors, are caused. Table 8-1. Explanation of dialectical thinking from DBT skills Handout 16 (Linehan, 2014). There are individual differences in many aspects of development and these differences impact people’s function. If we recognize that some skills are developmentally acquired, we can help people learn them. Marsha Linehan realized that young adults who have the most difficulty with self-regulation need to learn to think dialectically. She incorporated dialectical thinking into a therapy that helps people develop self-regulation skills and named the therapy Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (Linehan, 1993). In this therapy dialectical means bringing together many opposite truths such as, 1) the client is doing their best and 2) the client needs to do better and learn new skills. Other examples of dialectics include independence (Me-ness) AND dependence (We-ness); accepting reality AND working to change it; working on improving yourself AND accepting yourself exactly as you are; emotion regulation AND emotion acceptance; and problem solving AND problem acceptance. In the DBT skills training program dialectical thinking is taught in Interpersonal Effectiveness Handouts 15, 16 and 16A-C. Finishing Education and Settling into a Career High school graduation rates have increased for recent cohorts in the US. Connecticut is typical in this regard as state graduation rates range from 88-95% with the lowest rates occurring in southern states (Figure 7-7). The US ranks 5th worldwide in both high school graduation and college degrees. Canada has the highest college graduation rate at 60% and Mexico has nearly the lowest (19%). Both high school and college graduation rates have increased for recent cohorts in Mexico. Currently 42% of young adults in Mexico have a high school diploma or the equivalent (COE - International Educational Attainment, n.d.). 132 In 2017, 65% of US college seniors who graduated from private and public nonprofit colleges had student loan debt (average of $28,650), a 1% decline from 2016 (The Institute for College Access & Success (TICAS, 2018). See Figure 7-7 for yearly comparisons. According to the most recent TICAS annual report, the rate of debt varied widely across states, as well as between colleges. College debt ranged from 18,850 in Utah to $38,500 in Connecticut. Low-debt states are mainly in the West, and high-debt states in the Northeast. Educational Attainment in Connecticut, 2018 93 92 92 100 87 90 80 70 60 51 53 48 40 43 46 50 39 34 40 30 21 17 18 16 20 10 0 High School Associates or Bachelor's or Graduate or Diploma Higher Higher Professional 25-34 35-44 45-64 >64 Figure 8-1. (HigherEdInfo.Org: Generate Your Own Data, 2023) Larger amounts of student debt actually occur at the graduate level (Kreighbaum, 2019). In 2019, the highest average debts were concentrated in the medical fields. Average median debt for graduate programs included: $42,335 for a master¡¦s degree $95,715 for a doctoral degree $141,000 for a professional degree Worldwide, over 80% of college educated adults are employed, compared with just over 70% of those with a high school or equivalent diploma, and only 60% of those with no high school diploma (OECD, 2015). Those with a college degree will earn more over the course of their lives. Moreover, the benefits of college education go beyond employment and finances. Education is associated with thriving of children and educated parents tend to be more sensitive and responsive. The OECD found that around the world, adults with higher educational attainment were more likely to volunteer, felt they had more control over their lives, and thus were more interested in the world around them. Studies of U.S. college students find that they gain a more distinct identity and become more socially competent, less dogmatic, and ethnocentric (Pascarella, 2006). 133 Figure 8-2. Higher educational debt in the US by year. Is college worth the time and investment? College is certainly a substantial investment each year, with the financial burden falling on students and their families in the U.S., and mainly by the government in many other nations. Nonetheless, the benefits both to the individual and the society outweigh the initial costs. As can be seen in Figure 7.18, those in America with the most advanced degrees earn the highest income and have the lowest unemployment. Figure 8-3. Median earnings by educational level 2021 from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. 134 Career Development and Employment Work plays a significant role in the lives of people, and emerging and early adulthood is the time when people make choices that establish shape their career options. Career development proceeds through a series of stages: Stage One: Children consider careers based on what appears glamorous or exciting to us (Patton & McMahon, 1999). Children do not match aspirations with concepts of abilities. Stage Two: Teens include their abilities and limitations, in addition to the glamour of the occupation when narrowing their choices. Stage Three: Older teens and emerging adults narrow their choices further and weigh the requirements, rewards, and downsides to careers. They align possible careers with their own interests, values, and future goals (Patton & McMahon, 1999). However, some young people in this stage ‘fall-into’ careers. This career identity foreclosure happens when teens choose from a limited number of options, give into family pressures, and gravitate to high paying jobs, rather than from an intrinsic interest (Patton & McMahon, 1999). Stage Four: Super (1980) suggests that by the mid to late thirties, many adults settle in their careers. Even though they might change companies or move up in their position, there is a sense of continuity and forward motion in their career. However, some people at this point in their working life feel trapped, especially if there is little opportunity for advancement in a more dead-end job. How have things changed for Millennials compared with previous generations of early adults? In recent years, young adults are more likely to find themselves job-hopping, and periodically returning to school for further education and retraining than in prior generations. However, researchers find that occupational interests remain stable. Thus, despite more frequently changing jobs, most people don’t move into entirely different careers (Rottinghaus, Coon, Gaffey & Zytowski, 2007). As of 2016, millennials became the largest generation in the labor force. More than one-in-three American labor force participants (35%) are Millennials, making them the largest generation in the U.S. labor force, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data (Fry, 2018) (Figure 7-10). 135 Figure 8-4. Labor force participation by cohort from the Pew Research Center. Millennials maybe looking for something different for their lives and employment. According to a recent Gallup poll report (2016), Millennials want more than a paycheck, they want a purpose. Unfortunately, only 29% of Millennials surveyed by Gallup reported that they were “engaged” at work. In fact, they report being less engaged than Gen Xers and Baby Boomers; with 55% of Millennials saying they are not engaged at all with their job. This lack of connection to their workplace may explain their greater tendency to switch jobs. Only half of Millennials saw themselves working at the same company a year later. Gallup estimates that this employment turnover and lack of engagement costs businesses $30.5 billion a year. Most Common and Most Dangerous Occupations The most common occupations in the USA do not require a college education but as you can see from Table , salaries increase with the amount of education and training required. Also important to clinicians is how dangerous occupations are. The most dangerous common occupation is truck driver (#8). The most dangerous occupation is tree trimmer; relatedly, logging is #4; commercial pilot (#2), farm and ranch animal workers (including aquaculture) (#3) and roofers (#5) round out the top 5. In 2021 there were nearly 5200 job-related fatalities (read more from USA Today). 136  Job Average Yearly Earnings 1. Cashier $29,297 2. Food Preparation Worker $31,542 3. Stocking Associate $36,501 4. Laborer $39,539 5. Janitor $39, 584 6. Construction Worker $38,823 7. Bookkeeper $42,746 8. Server $45,091 9. Medical Assistant $46,462 10. Bartender $48,092 11. Administrative Assistant $49,457 12. Marketing Specialist $49,478 13. Police Officer $55,334 14. Electrician $56,953 15. Mechanic $57,110 16. Retail Sales $58,406 17. Customer Service $59,948 18. Carpenter $61,291 19. Office Clerk $62,618 20. Operations Manager $67,185 21. Line Supervisor $68,397 22. Truck Driver $69,149 23. Registered Nurse $88,820 24. Software Developer $93,948 25. Lawyer $127,990 Table 8-4. Most common occupations in the USA from Indeed.com Not Engaged in Education, Employment or Training (NEETs) Around the world, teens and young adults were some of the hardest hit by the economic downturn of 2008 (Desilver, 2016). Consequently, many young people have become NEETs, neither employed nor in education or training (Figure 7-11). While the number of young people who are NEETs declined with the recovery, there is concern that “without assistance, economically inactive young people won’t gain critical job skills and will never fully integrate into the wider economy or achieve their full earning potential” (Desilver, 2016, para. 3). In parts of the world where the rates of NEETs are persistently high, there is also concern that having such large numbers of young adults with little opportunity may increase the chances of social unrest. 137  Figure 8-5. NEETs around the world. In the United States, in 2017 over 13% of 15- to 29-year-olds were neither employed nor in school, (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, (OECD), 2019). This compares to 2013, when approximately 18.5% of this age group fit the category (Desilver, 2016). More young women than men in the United States find themselves unemployed and not in school or training for a job. Additionally, most NEETs have high school or less education, and Asians are less likely to be NEETs than any other ethnic group in the US (Desilver, 2016). The rate of NEETs varies around the world, with higher rates found in nations that have been the hardest hit by economic recessions, and government austerity measures. The number of NEETs also varies widely between the genders, although females are more likely to be NEETs in all nations. Gender and Career Choices Gender has an impact on career choices. Despite the rise in the number of women who work outside of the home, there are gender differences in careers. Jobs held by women tend to cluster in the service sector, such as education, nursing, and child-care. Men outnumber women in technical and scientific careers. Jobs traditionally held by women tend to have lower status, pay, benefits, and job security (Bosson, et al., 2019). In recent years, more women have entered male-dominated occupations. Women are almost as likely as men to become medical doctors or lawyers. Overall, within medicine and law, women have lower-status and less pay than men. For instance, women are 138 more likely to specialize in family practice rather than surgery and are less likely to make partner in a law firm (Ceci & Williams, 2007). Gender Discrimination Gender discrimination is unequal or disadvantageous treatment of an individual or group of individuals based on gender. In the United States, when professions are male dominated, women are less likely to be hired or promoted within them. Examples of male-dominated professions include engineering, aviation, and construction (Blau, Ferber, & Winkler, 2010; Ceci & Williams, 2011). Wages of female dominated professions are lower than those for male dominated professions. The Council of Economic Advisors (2015) found that despite women holding 49.3% of the jobs, they are paid only 78 cents for every $1.00 a man earns. Although the U.S. has anti- discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce, and long-standing practices change slowly. There are many possible explanations for the wage gap that exists at every of educational level (Bosson et al., 2019). Women now attain more associates, bachelor’s, and master’s degrees than men, and very similar levels of professional degrees and doctorates, according to a recent Census survey (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). Therefore, educational attainment is not responsible for the wage gap. Instead, occupational segregation contributes to the wage gap, as women tend to work in very different occupations than men, and women’s coccupations have lower wages. In addition, the entry of Table 8-6. The gender wage gap for select professions. women into a field tends to reduce the wages and prestige of the job. When large numbers of women opt for jobs typically held by men, decreases in wages follow (Mandel, 2013). Sticky Floors, Glass Ceilings and Glass Cliffs Women are often paid less for doing the exact same job; hourly earnings of women are lower than those of the men who have similar qualifications and experience (Table 7-3). Three factors act to maintain the wage gap; the first occurs at job selection and the other two (the sticky floor and the glass ceiling) act once a woman is hired. Women select jobs with lower pay but that have specific non-wage advantages for them. 139 Women value flexibility with hours, shorter commute times, and the ability to spend more time in their unpaid household work. Women’s job selection behavior contributes to the Sticky Floor Effect― a discriminatory employment pattern that keeps women in the lower ranks of the job scale, with low mobility and invisible barriers to career advancement. Employers know that women do a lot more household work (as discussed in Chapter 8) and perceive them to be less productive than men and so they pay them less (Ciminelli et al., 2021). Women’s careers are often interrupted by childbearing and so their career paths may not allow them to network and establish reputations at the same rate as men. This lack of human capital causes the Glass Ceiling Effect― a metaphorical invisible barrier that prevents certain individuals from being promoted to managerial- and executive-level positions within an organization or industry. Women make up 56.8% of the labor force in the U.S but hold only 29.1% of executive positions (Kagan, 2022). Unfortunately, when women do rise to leadership positions it is often at a time when the organization is faced with a major crisis. This is called the Glass Cliff Effect― the phenomenon whereby women and minorities are over-represented in leadership positions that have a high risk of failure. For instance, female lawyers are more likely than their male counterparts to lead high-risk cases, and female politicians are more likely to be recommended to run for unwinnable seats (Bruckmuller, Ryan, Floor, & Haslam, 2014). The Worldwide Status of Women Despite the existence of gender discrimination in the labor force, women’s rights are one major accomplishment of WEIRD nations. In many developing nations, young girls are not given access to nutrition, healthcare, and education; women have limited employment opportunities and maternal mortality is high. Within nations the variables of higher education for women, paid employment opportunity, participation in leadership roles and politics, intimate partner violence (IPV) and child marriage and maternal mortality are highly interrelated (Bagade et al., 2022). The World Economic Forum (2017) introduced The Global Gender Gap Report in 2006 as way of tracking disparities between men and women. The most recent report in 2017 assessed gender equality in 144 countries in the areas of: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. Gender parity is defined as 100% equality on these measures. Results indicated: 68% gender parity worldwide in the four areas. Specifically, 96% parity in health outcomes, 95% parity in educational attainment, 58% parity in economic participation, and only 23% parity in political empowerment. Smaller WEIRD nations are the most equal, particularly the Nordic countries, Iceland (88% parity), Norway (83% parity) and Finland (82% parity). The United States ranked 49th with 72% gender parity. 140  References Bagade, T., Chojenta, C., Harris, M., Oldmeadow, C., & Loxton, D. (2022). The human right to safely give birth: Data from 193 countries show that gender equality does affect maternal mortality. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 22(1), 874. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-05225-6 Basseches, M. (2005). The development of dialectical thinking as an approach to integration. Integral Review, 1(1), 47–63. Ciminelli, G., Schwellnus, C., & Stadler, B. (2021). Sticky floors or glass ceilings? 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