Commercial Certificate PDF

www.GroundSchool.com C O M M E R C I A L C E R T I F I C AT E Everything You Need To Know Aeronautical Experience Required for Commercial Rating § 61...

www.GroundSchool.com C O M M E R C I A L C E R T I F I C AT E Everything You Need To Know Aeronautical Experience Required for Commercial Rating § 61.129 250 hours of total flight time At least 100 hours in powered aircraft At least 20 hours training in areas of (50 of which must be in airplanes) operation listed in § 61.127(b)(1) At least 100 hours pilot-in-command At least 10 hours of instrument training using a view-limiting device including At least 50 hours in airplanes attitude instrument flying, partial panel At least 50 hours cross-country skills, recovery from unusual flight (10 of which must be in airplanes) attitudes, and intercepting and tracking navigational systems. At least 10 hours solo flight time in a single engine airplane -or- 10 hours of flight time performing the One 2-hour cross country flight in duties of PIC with an instructor on board. daytime conditions that consists of a total straight-line distance of more than One cross-country flight of not less 100 nautical miles. than 300 nautical miles total distance, with landings at a minimum of 3 points, One 2-hour cross country flight in one of which is a straight-line distance of nighttime conditions that consists of a at least 250 nautical miles. total straight-line distance of more than (special circumstances with Hawaii) 100 nautical miles. 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 At least 3 hours in a single-engine takeoffs and 10 landings (with each airplane with an authorized instructor in landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) preparation for the practical test within at an airport with an operating control tower. the preceding 2 calendar months. At least 10 hours of training in a complex airplane, or a technically advanced Note: ( ) airplane (TAA). An Instrument rating alone does NOT satisfy the training requirements for a Commercial Certificate From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 1 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Eligibility Requirements Other Endorsements For Commercial Pilot Certificate § 61.123 Tailwheel Endorsement § 61.31(i) Does not require a minimum number of At least 18 years of age hours. Requires specific maneuvers to be Be able to read, speak, write, and demonstrated: understand English. Normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings Receive a logbook endorsement Wheel landings from an authorized instructor who: Go-around procedures Conducted the required ground training or reviewed the person’s home study on Complex Endorsement § 61.31(e) the aeronautical knowledge areas listed For airplanes with retractable landing in § 61.125 gear, flaps, & controllable pitch propeller. Does not require a minimum number of Certified that the person is prepared for hours. the required knowledge test Required to log and receive ground and Pass the required knowledge test on the flight training from authorized instructor. aeronautical knowledge areas listed in § 61.125 High-Performance Endorsement § 61.31(f) Receive the required training and a logbook For airplanes with an engine of more than endorsement from an authorized instructor who: 200 horsepower. Required to log and receive ground and Conducted the training on the areas of flight training from authorized instructor. operation listed in § 61.127 High-Altitude Endorsement § 61.31(g) Certified that the person is prepared for For airplanes with a service ceiling or the required practical test maximum operating altitude, whichever Meet the aeronautical experience requirements of is lower, above 25,000 ft. MSL this subpart § 61.123 that apply to the aircraft Required to log and receive ground and category and class rating. flight training from authorized instructor. Training must include these subjects: Pass the required practical test on the areas of operation listed in § 61.127 High-altitude aerodynamics and meteorology Hold at least a private pilot certificate issued under this part or meet the requirements of § 61.73 Respiration Comply with the sections of this part that apply to the Hypoxia & high-altitude sickness aircraft category and class rating sought. Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen Effects of prolonged usage of supplemental oxygen Causes and effects of gas expansion Incidents of decompression Other physiological aspects of high-altitude flight From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 2 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Instrument Requirements Instrument Time § 61.51g (1) - A person may log instrument time only for that flight time when the person operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. § 61.51g (2) - An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting instrument flight instruction in actual instrument conditions. Mandatory IFR Reporting Logging Instrument Time Any un-forecasted weather conditions § 91.183 § 61.51 g(3i-ii)(4) When vacating any previously assigned altitude Location and type of each approach or flight level AIM 5-3-3 Safety pilot name (if required) Time and altitude/flight level upon reaching a Flight simulator used holding fix AIM 5-3-3 If used for certificate or rating, When leaving any assigned holding fix AIM 5-3-3 add instructor name and number Compulsory Reporting Points § 91.183 If instrument rated and used for When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at currency, no instructor needed least 500 feet per minute AIM 5-3-3 When executing a missed approach AIM 5-3-3 Instrument Rating Required A change in average true airspeed (at cruise) When acting as PIC within IFR when it varies by 5% or 10 knots from the speed weather conditions § 61.3 filed in the flight plan AIM 5-3-3 When carrying passengers for Loss of navigation AIM 5-3-3 compensation or hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50 NM Any information relating to safety of flight § 91.183 or at night § 61.133 Flight in Class A airspace § 91.135 To act as PIC under IFR Current Medical Certificate Flight in Special VFR between sunset (or Basic Med with restrictions) and sunrise § 91.157 Current Instrument Rating IFR Minimum Fuel Requirements § 91.167 Fuel from Fuel from 45 Minutes Destination calculated at departure to + to most distant + normal cruise destination Alternate speed/alt. (If alternate is required) From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 3 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Required Personal Documents Required Aircraft Maintenance Inspections Pilot Certificate “AV1ATES” Medical Certificate A - Annual Inspection § 91.409 (or operating under Basic Med) Every 12 Calendar Months Authorized Photo ID V - VOR Check § 91.171 Radio Operator Permit (for flight outside the US) Every 30 Days 1 - 100 Hour Inspection § 91.409 Required Aircraft Documents Required if flying for hire § 21.5, 91.103, 91.1, 91.203 A - Altimeter § 91.411 “ARROW” Every 24 Calendar Months A - Airworthiness Certificate T - Transponder § 91.413 R - Registration Every 24 Calendar Months R - Radio Operator License (for international flights) E - ELT § 91.207 O - Operating Limitations & Information (in AFM) Every 12 Calendar Months W - Weight and Balance Data (aircraft specific) Battery must be replaced after more than 1 hour of cumulative use - or - Preflight Self Assessment If 50% of the usable battery life is expired § 91.17, AIM 8-1-1 S - Static System § 91.411 “IM SAFE” Every 24 Calendar Months I - Illness M - Medication Confirmation of airworthiness is the S - Stress responsibility of the Pilot-In-Command A - Alcohol F - Fatigue E - Emotion/Eating Minimum Required Equipment for VFR Flight § 91.205 “A TOMATO FLAMES” Preflight General A - Altimeter “PAVE” T - Tachometer for each engine P - Pilot O - Oil Temp indicator for each engine A - Aircraft M - Manifold pressure gauge for each engine V - EnVironment A - Airspeed Indicator E - External Factors T - Temp gauge for each liquid cooled engine O - Oil pressure gauge for each engine F - Fuel quantity gauge for each fuel tank Decision Making & Risk Management L - Landing gear position lights “DECIDE” A - Anticollision lights (aircraft certified after 03/11/96) D - Detect a change has occurred M - Magnetic compass E - Estimate the need to counter the change E - ELT C - Choose what is the desired outcome S - Safety belts/shoulder harnesses I - Identify the solutions D - Do the necessary actions E - Evaluate the effects of the actions From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 4 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Minimum Required Equipment for Operating with inoperative equipment VFR Night Flight § 91.213 All day VFR + “FLAPS” Is the equipment required by: F - Fuses (spare set) An Airworthiness Directive (AD) L - Landing light (if for hire) Regulations for type of flight operation A - Anticollision light VFR Day certification requirements P - Position lights (navigation lights) An operational equipment list S - Source of power (such as battery) Yes Minimum Required Equipment for Flying is NOT PERMITTED without INSTRUMENT Flight a special flight permit All day VFR (+ FLAPS if at night) “GRABCARD” G - Generator/Alternator R - Radios (two way and nav.) No A - Altimeter (pressure sensitive) Flying is PERMITTED, so long as: equipment is removed B - Ball (slip-skid indicator) C - Clock (Installed & shows hrs. min. and sec with a - or - sweep-second pointer or digital presentation) deactivated and placarded “inoperative” A - Attitude indicator pilot/mechanic determines safe to fly R - Rate of turn indicator D - Directional gyro (Heading indicator) If the aircraft has a Minimum Equipment List (MEL), refer to the MEL guidance. Preflight Info Required for IFR § 91.103 “NW KRAFT” Required Test Flight N - NOTAMs § 91.407 (b) W - Weather reports and forecasts No person may carry any person (other than K - Known traffic delays crewmembers) in an aircraft that has R - Runway length of intended use undergone maintenance affecting flight A - Alternatives available characteristics unless a test flight has been F - Fuel requirements completed and logged by someone with at T - Takeoff and landing performance data least a private pilot certificate. Types of 30 Day VOR Checks Magnetic Compass Errors § 91.171 (with acceptable tolerances) “DV MONA” D - Deviation VOT - +- 4° V - Variation Repair Station - +- 4° M - Magnetic dip VOR Ground Checkpoint - +- 4° O - Oscillation VOR Airborne Checkpoint - +- 6° N - North/South turn errors “UNOS” Dual VOR Cross-Check - +- 4° Undershoot North/Overshoot South Above a Prominent Ground Landmark On a selected radial at least 20 NM from a VOR A - Acceleration errors “ANDS” flying at a “reasonably low altitude” +- 6° Accelerate North/Decelerate South From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 5 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Do you need an Alternate? § 91.169 Does your destination have at least 1 instrument approach available? AND Does the forecasted weather at your destination airport meet the 1-2-3 rule? - 1 hour before your ETA through 1 hour after your ETA - 2,000 ft ceilings or higher - 3 SM visibility or greater Yes No Alternate required No alternate required Does your chosen alternate have non-standard alternate requirements that can be complied with? Yes No Choose different alternate Are forecasted weather minimum requirements met at your ETA? - Precision Approach: 600’ ceiling, 2 SM visibility No - Non-Precision Approach: 800’ ceiling, 2 SM visibility - No Approach: Able to descend from MEA & land VFR Yes You may plan your flight to airports with only RNAV No Is your airplane equipped approaches at EITHER the with a WAAS GPS? destination OR the alternate, Yes but not both You may plan your flight to airports with only RNAV approaches at BOTH the destination AND the alternate From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 6 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Speed Review V-Speeds Airspeed VA - Design maneuvering speed Indicator VS - Stall speed, clean configuration VSO - Stall speed, landing configuration Markings VS1 - Stall speed, specific configuration VF - Design flap speed VLE - Max landing gear extended speed White Arc - VFE - Max flap extended speed Flap operating range. VNO - Max structural cruise speed Starts at VSO and ends at VFE VNE - Never exceed speed Green Arc - VX - Best angle of climb Normal operating range. VY - Best rate of climb Starts at VS1 & ends at VNO VG - Best glide speed VREF - Calculated final approach speed Yellow Arc - Caution range. Fly only in smooth air with caution. Max Airspeeds in the United States Relative to VA § 91.117 Red Line - Mach 1.0 - (speed of sound) above Warning range. VNE. 10,000 ft MSL Structural damage possible. 250 kts - Below 10,000 ft MSL 200 kts - Under Class B airspace, or Types of Speeds inside a VFR corridor through Class B 200 kts - At or below 2,500 ft within Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - Speed indicated on 4 NM of Class C or D airport the airspeed indicator Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and position errors Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - Calibrated Types of Altitudes airspeed corrected for compressibility error Indicated Altitude - Uncorrected altitude True Airspeed (TAS) - Actual speed through indicated on the altimeter when barometric the air. Equivalent Airspeed corrected for pressure is set to current pressure setting non-standard temperature and pressure Pressure Altitude - Altitude corrected for Mach number - The ratio of True Airspeed non-standard pressure relative to the local speed of sound Density Altitude - Pressure altitude corrected Groundspeed - Actual speed across the ground. for non-standard temperature True Airspeed corrected for wind conditions. True Altitude - Altitude above Mean Sea Level Critical Mach - Lowest Mach number at which (MSL) the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound. Absolute Altitude - Altitude above ground level (AGL) From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 7 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Recency Requirements Instrument Currency Helpful Tip § 61.57(c) Use the acronym “6 HITS” to remember the IFR recency requirements Conducted 6 instrument approaches 6 - 6 Instrument Approaches Intercepted and tracked courses using navigation systems H - Holding procedures I - Intercepted a course Performed holding procedures T - Tracked a course Note: The FAA doesn’t specify how many S - Using navigational systems 6 Months holds. Just more than one. These can be completed in an Flight Review approved FFS, ATD, or FTD provided Within the last 24 calendar months the device is of the same category Min 1 hr flight instruction and type aircraft and the pilot Min 1 hr ground instruction performs them in simulated instrument conditions. A flight instructor is not Conducted by authorized instructor required. May be substituted by... A proficiency check A practical test for a new rating or Additional time to accomplish certificate the 3 tasks with... A safety pilot in simulated instrument Completion of one or more phases of conditions FAA sponsored pilot proficiency award program (WINGS) A CFI or examiner Additional 6 Months Flight Instructor Renewal § 61.197 Safety Pilot (substitutes ground portion only) Must have at least a Private Pilot Certificate (does not have to be current) Passenger Carrying Must be rated in the same 3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding category and class aircraft 90 days in the same aircraft Must have a current medical category, class, and type Aircraft must have dual controls (Full stop with a tail dragger) Must have adequate visibility of front and each side of the aircraft Passenger Carrying At Night 3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding 90 days in the same aircraft Instrument Proficiency Check IPC Required category, class, and type Administered by a CFII, examiner, or FAA approved official Full Stop 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise Some IPC tasks can be conducted in an Approved Aviation Training Device (AATD) From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 8 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Additional ADS-B Out Requirements Class E airspace at or above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding airspace at and below 2,500 feet AGL Within 30 nautical miles of a Class B primary airport (the Mode C veil) Above the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries of Class B or Class C airspace up to 10,000 feet MSL Class E airspace over the Gulf of Mexico, at and above 3,000 feet MSL, within 12 nm of the U.S. coast Missing or Broken Transponder Prior to operating an aircraft NOT equipped with a transponder in Class B airspace, a request for a deviation must be submitted to the controlling ATC facility at least 1 hour before the proposed flight. If the transponder fails during the flight in Class B airspace, a request must be immediately made and a transponder requirement deviation may be issued to allow the flight to continue through the airspace. Supplemental Oxygen Requirements § 91.211 Required to satisfy all requirements below + an additional 10 minutes of oxygen for each person 25,001’ MSL - Unlimited on board 25,000’ MSL Required to be used by flight crew - and - Must be provided to every occupant 15,001’ MSL 15,000’ MSL Required to be used by flight crew 14,001’ MSL 14,000’ MSL Required by required crew if over 30 minutes at this altitude 12,501’ MSL 12,500’ MSL No supplemental oxygen required Sea Level Note: All MSL altitudes listed here are “Cabin Pressure Altitudes” From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 9 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Electronic Devices § 91.21 No person may operate, nor may any operator or pilot in command of an aircraft allow the operation of, any portable electronic device on any civil aircraft: - Does not apply to - 1.) Portable voice recorders 2.) Hearing aids 3.) Heart pacemakers 4.) Electric shavers 5.) Any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft in which it is to be used. Types of Aircraft Icing Rime Ice Rough, milky, opaque ice Formed by the instantaneous or very rapid freezing of super cooled droplets as they strike the leading edges Rough surface can decrease aerodynamic efficiency, but it is lighter than clear ice Clear Ice Glossy, transparent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of super cooled water Denser, harder, and sometimes more transparent than the rime ice Harder to remove than rime ice Mixed Ice Combination of clear and rime ice Roughness and weight can have an effect on aerodynamics Icing Intensities Trace Light Moderate Severe Icing perceptible. Not Icing clearly visible. Even short encounters Rate of accumulation is hazardous unless Anti-icing/deicing can be hazardous. such that deicing/ encountered for an equipment removes/ Anti-icing/deicing anti-icing equipment fails extended period of time. prevents accumulation. equipment must be to reduce the hazard. used, or diversion. Diversion mandatory. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 10 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Systems Ignition System Magnetos Detonation: An electrical generator that uses permanent magnets to produce periodic An uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the pulses of alternating current. fuel-air mixture within the cylinder’s combustion chamber. Generates an electrical current completely independent of the aircraft’s Could be caused by a lower fuel grade electrical system. than recommended Operates whenever the crankshaft is Operation of the engine with extremely high rotating. manifold pressures in conjunction with low RPM. Operation of the engine at high power Note: settings with an excessively lean mixture. Even with the ignition switch in the OFF Preignition: position, if the ground wire between Occurs when the fuel-air mixture ignites prior the magneto and the ignition becomes to the engine’s normal ignition event. disconnected or broken, the engine could accidentally start if the propeller Usually caused by a residual hot spot in the is moved with residual fuel in the lines. combustion chamber. Causes the engine to lose power and produces high operating temperatures. Fuel-Air Mixture Spark Plug Fouling: The ratio of the “weight” of fuel to the “weight” of air in the mixture to be burned. Occurs when low engine operating temperatures are coupled with running Leaning the fuel mixture at cruise a rich mixture. altitude promotes optimal engine performance. Leaning before taxiing prevents spark Propellers plugs from fouling. Fixed-Pitch: Blade angle is built into the blade itself. Once the propeller has been built, the Angle can’t be changed. Constant-Speed Propeller: Controllable-pitch propeller whose pitch is automatically varied in flight by a governor. Two controls: The throttle and the propeller control. Once an RPM is selected, a governor automatically adjusts the propeller blade. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 11 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Light Gun Signals Aircraft on Aircraft in Vehicles and the Ground Flight Ground Personnel Steady Green Cleared for Takeoff Cleared to Land Cleared to cross; Go Flashing Green Cleared to Taxi Return for Landing N/A Give way to other aircraft and continue Steady Red Stop circling Stop Taxi clear of landing area - or - Airport unsafe Clear the Flashing Red Runway in use DO NOT LAND taxiway/runway Return to starting Return to starting Flashing White point on airport N/A point on airport Alt. General warning signal General warning signal General warning signal Red and Green exercise extreme caution exercise extreme caution exercise extreme caution From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 12 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Four Lift Drag Forces st Of Flight Thru Types of Drag Parasitic: Drag produced by the motion of an Gravity object through a fluid. Induced: Drag that arises from the development of lift. Forces in a Turn Horizontal Lift Centrifugal Force Angle of Attack Camber line Relative wind Bernoulli’s Principle Basic principle that allows for the creation of lift. States that an increase in the speed of a fluid Chord line occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure (Elements of an airfoil) or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy. As air passes above the wing it speeds up and creates an area of low pressure. As the air passes below the wing it slows down and creates increased pressure. The pressure difference creates an upward lifting force. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 13 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Vertical Lift To Normal Turn ta lL ift Centrifugal force equals horizontal lift Centrifugal Force Horizontal Lift To Gravity ta Lol ad Vertical Lift To ta Slipping Turn lL ift Centrifugal force is less than horizontal lift Centrifugal Force Horizontal Lift Tot a Gravity l Lo ad Vertical Lift To Skidding Turn ta lL ift Centrifugal force is greater than horizontal lift Centrifugal Force Horizontal Lift Gravity To ta lL oa d From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 14 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  National Airspace System 60,000 MSL Class A 18,000’ MSL 14,500’ MSL Class E (everywhere else) Class B 1,200’ Class G AGL Non-towered 700’ Class C airport with AGL instrument Class D approach Class G VFR Cloud Clearances Class A None None Class B 3 SM Clear of Clouds Class C 3 SM 500 ft. below Class D 3 SM 1,000 ft. above 2,000 ft. horizontal Less than 10,000 MSL 3 SM Class E 1,000 ft. Above, 1,000 ft. below At or above 10,000 MSL 5 SM 1 statute mile horizontal Day 1 SM Clear of Clouds Up to 1,200 AGL Night 3 SM 500 ft. below More than 1,200 AGL Day 1 SM 1,000 ft. above Class G Less than 10,000 MSL 2,000 ft. horizontal Night 3 SM More than 1,200 AGL 1,000 ft. Above, 1,000 ft. below And at or above 10,000 MSL 5 SM 1 statute mile horizontal From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 15 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Aeromedical Factors Hypoxia A condition of the body in which the tissues are starved of oxygen. Hypoxic Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole. Hypemic Hypoxia: Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells in the body. Stagnant Hypoxia: Results when the oxygen-rich blood in the lungs is not moving, for one reason or another. Blood is not moving, so oxygen is not delivered to the tissues. Histotoxic Hypoxia: The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen. Solution: Don an oxygen mask if one is available and descend immediately to the lowest practical altitude. Hyperventilation The excessive rate and depth of respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood. Symptoms of hyperventilation are similar to those of hypoxia. It is important to correctly diagnose and treat the proper condition. But when in doubt, treat it as hypoxia and get to a lower altitude as soon as possible. Solution: Slow your breathing and increase carbon dioxide intake by breathing into some kind of bag. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Exposure to a colorless, odorless, tasteless deadly gas caused by the combustion of carbon based materials. Usually airplane exhaust getting into the cabin. Symptoms usually start with drowsiness and come on quickly. Solution: Turn the cabin heat off, ventilate the cabin as much as possible, open a window if you’re able, land as soon as possible. Types of Medicals § 61.23 Second Class Medical: First Class Medical: Required for Commercial Pilot Certificate Required for Airline Transport Pilot Valid for 12 calendar months regardless of age Valid for 12 calendar months if the pilot is under age 40 Once this time period lapses, it reverts to 3rd class privileges. It then reverts to 3rd Class privileges Third Class Medical: Valid for 6 months if the pilot is 40 and over Required for Private Pilot, Flight Instructor, It then reverts to 2nd Class privileges or Student Pilot for 6 months Valid for 60 calendar months (5 years) After that 6 months lapses, it reverts to if the pilot is under age 40 3rd class privileges Valid for 24 calendar months if the pilot is 40 and over From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 16 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 BasicMed: Alternate way for pilots to fly without holding an FAA medical certificate as long as they meet certain requirements; Eligibility Requirements: Possess a U.S. Driver’s license, have held a medical after July 14, 2006 Get a physical exam with a state-licensed physician, using the Comprehensive Medical Examination Checklist Complete a BasicMed medical education course Aircraft Requirements: Any aircraft authorized under federal law to carry not more than 6 occupants Max certificated takeoff weight of not more than 6,000 pounds Operating Requirements: Carries not more than five passengers Operates under VFR or IFR, within the United States, at less than 18,000 ft. and not exceeding 250 knots. Flight not operated for compensation or hire Spatial Disorientation and Illusions The Leans Most common illusion during flight. Caused by a sudden return to level flight following a gradual and prolonged turn that went unnoticed by the pilot. The pilot may lean in the direction of the original turn in a corrective attempt to regain the perception of a correct vertical posture. Coriolis Illusion Occurs when a pilot has been in a turn long enough for the fluid in the ear canal to move at the same speed as the canal. This creates the illusion of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to correct the aircraft’s perceived attitude. Graveyard Spiral Occurs in a prolonged coordinated, constant-rate turn. As the fluid in the ear settles, the pilot forgets they are turning. When the disoriented pilot recovers to level flight, the pilot will then experience the sensation of turning in the opposite direction. The pilot then returns the plane to its original turn, losing altitude in the process. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 17 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Somatogravic Illusion A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff, creates the illusion of being in a nose-up attitude. The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude. Inversion Illusion An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backward. The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, which may intensify the illusion. Elevator Illusion An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude. False Horizon Attempting to the align the aircraft with either a sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon, an Aurora Borealis, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, or certain geometric patterns. The disoriented pilot may place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude. Autokinesis When flying in the dark, a stationary light may appear to move if it is stared at for a prolonged period of time. The disoriented pilot may attempt to align the aircraft with the perceived moving light, potentially causing them to lose control of the aircraft. Effects of Alcohol Regulations Part 91 requires that blood alcohol level be less than.04 percent and that 8 hours pass between drinking alcohol and piloting an aircraft. “8 hours bottle to throttle.” Alcohol can greatly impair the efficiency of the human body. As little as one ounce of alcohol can decrease the speed and strength of muscular reflexes, lessen the efficiency of eye movements while reading, and increase the frequency at which errors are committed. The body requires about 3 hours to rid itself of all the alcohol contained in one mixed drink or one beer. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 18 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Night Operations Definition of “Night” The time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight, as published in the Air Almanac, converted to local time. Definition of “Civil Twilight” Morning civil twilight begins when the geometric center of the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon and ends at sunrise. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the geometric center of the sun reaches 6 degrees below the horizon. Usually between 20-35 minutes after sunset or before sunrise. Definition of “Sunrise and Sunset” Sunset occurs when the upper edge of the sun - called the “upper limb” - sinks just under the horizon. Sunrise occurs when the upper limb rises just above the horizon. “Night” Begins “Night” Ends (1 hr after sunset) Night (1 hr before sunrise) - Must have landing currency - Begin logging End logging night hours night hours Sunset Civil Twilight Civil Twilight Sunrise Position lights and anti-collision Position lights and anticollision lights (if equipped) must be turned ON lights (if equipped) may be turned OFF Night Takeoff and Landing Experience § 61.57 (b) No person may act as PIC carrying passengers during the period of 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, unless within the preceding 90 days that person has made: At least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop within that time period That person acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls In aircraft of the same category, class, and type Logging Night Flying You can log night time anytime between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight. Plane must be night VFR equipped. Lighting Rules From sunset to sunrise position lights and anti-collision lights (if installed) are required to be turned on. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 19 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Stalls Definition of “Stall” A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the wing’s surface brought on by exceeding the critical angle of attack. It can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed. Stalls in Different Flight Situations There are 3 different flight situations in which the critical angle of attack is most commonly exceeded: Low Speed: As airspeed decreases, the angle of attack must be increased to retain the lift required for maintaining altitude. Eventually, an angle of attack is reached which results in the wing not producing enough lift to support the aircraft. High Speed: Critical angle of attack can be reached at any speed. With abrupt changes to angle of attack, the critical angle of attack can be exceeded and a stall becomes imminent. Turning: Centrifugal force is added to the aircraft’s weight and the wing must produce sufficient additional lift to counterbalance the load imposed by the combination of centrifugal force and weight. Since angle of attack must be increased as bank increases, careful consideration must be made not to exceed the critical angle of attack in the turn. Aircraft Stability Static Stability Initial tendency, or direction of movement, back to equilibrium. Positive Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed. Neutral Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new condition after it’s equilibrium has been disturbed. Negative Static Stability: Initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed. Dynamic Stability Initial tendency to return to equilibrium that the aircraft displays after being disturbed from its trimmed condition. Positive Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in amplitude and, because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium state. Neutral Dynamic Stability: Once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor increases in amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency. Negative Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and becomes more divergent. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 20 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Commercial Privileges Am I legal? Private Pilot Operation No Are you being paid At least 3rd class medical for this flight? Share the expense Yes Passenger Who is providing Do you have an the aircraft? Instrument Rating? Potentially need Myself or Yes a Letter of Approval, a third party No otherwise you’re good No Limitation to go. Are you doing one Can not carry passengers: of these things? At night § 119.1(e) Yes Cross-country greater - Student instruction than 50 nm § 61.133(b) No - Commercial air tours that Providing piloting service begin and end in the same Commercial pilot certificate place, within 25 statute miles At least 2nd class medical with letter of authorization Are you carrying - Ferry or training flights people or property? Part 91 Operation - Aerial work operations Yes Crop dusting IFR takeoff minimum Banner towing does NOT apply Survey Are you willing to take anyone? (Hold Out) Aerial photography Fire fighting No Yes Power line/pipeline patrol 20 seats or greater Parachute operations - Or - Payload 6,000 lbs. Scheduled? - Emergency mail service or greater Yes No No Yes Part 121 Part 135 Part 129 Operational Operational Operational Part 135 Part 125 Certificate Certificate Certificate Operational Operational Required Required Required Certificate Certificate Required Required Common Carriage (Foreign air carriers and foreign Need an operational certificate operators of U.S. Private Carriage IFR takeoff minimum applies or Noncommon Carriage registered planes) From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 21 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Common and Private Carriage Reference AC 120-12A Holding Out: Essentially, “holding out” is advertising yourself as a pilot Compensation: for hire. Reference AC 61-142 Holding out can be done through: - Anything of value, including the sharing of expenses. Agents (Not to be confused with the Word of mouth § 61.113 (c) Private pilot rules Advertising and signs about your pro rata share.) Internet and Social media - Profit or profit motive Common Carriage: (Actual exchanging of funds is not required to be considered A carrier becomes a common carriage carrier when it compensation.) “holds itself out” to the public as willing to furnish transportation to those who want it. - Good will in the form of Common Carriage generally consists of 4 elements. expected future economic 1.) Holding out a willingness to benefits. 2.) Transport persons or property 3.) From place to place - Accruing flight time. (Yes. In certain situations this 4.) For Compensation can be considered Private Carriage: compensation.) Carriage for hire which does NOT involve “holding out.” - Value for a third party recipient. This is carriage for one or a select few customers. Think one aircraft operator working for 1 or 2 contracted clients. Note: Operational Control Basically anything that would get The authority to initiate, conduct, or terminate a flight. you to do the flight when you otherwise would not, can be considered compensation in the eyes of the FAA. Review of Part 91 shared expense rules § 61.113 (c) You’re allowed to share expenses with passengers, so long as those expenses are fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or aircraft rental fees. You must pay your pro rata share You must have a common purpose with your passengers and your own reason for flying. If there is any form of “holding out” involved, then sharing expenses becomes “compensation” and now follows under the requirements for “Common Carriage.” From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 22 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Reading a METAR Aviation routine weather reports. These provide snapshots in time of terminal weather. Issued every hour, usually :55 - :59 past the hour. Date/Time Present Weather Temperature & Dew Point Airport Wind Visibility Sky Condition Altimeter Setting KATL 171652Z 31013KT 1 1/2SM -RA BR BKN006 BKN012 OVC024 13/12 A2991 RMK A02 SFC VIS 3 SLP127 CIG 004V008 P0003 T01280117 Remarks Remarks Cont. Translated: KATL 17th of the month at 16:52 Zulu Wind is from 310 degrees at 13 knots There is 1 ½ statute miles of visibility Light rain and mist 3 ceiling layers: Broken at 600 ft., Broken at 1,200 ft., and Overcast at 2,400 ft. 13 degrees celsius outside temperature and 12 degrees celsius dew point Altimeter setting of 29.91 inches of mercury Remarks: A02 - The site is automated and has a precipitation sensor. SFC VIS 3 - Surface visibility from a predetermined point is 3 statute miles (However, 1 ½ SM is controlling) SLP127 - Sea Level Pressure in hectopascal. 127 = 1012.7 hPa CIG - Lowest level ceiling layer is 400 ft. but variable to 800 ft. P0003 - Hourly precipitation amount, 00.03 inches in the last hour “T” for temperature (0 for positive or 1 for negative) 12.8 degrees celsius air temp. / (0 for positive or 1 for negative) 11.7 degrees celsius dew point From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 23 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Reading a TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast Expected weather conditions at an airport Issued at least 4 times per day Valid for a 24 or 30 hour period Date/Time of Report Wind Present Weather Optional Weather Data Airport Date/Time Range Visibility Sky Condition KATL 171538Z 1715/1818 21010KT 4SM SHRA BR BKN006 OVC025 WS020/22040KT FM171700 21010G20KT 4SM BR OVC010 From Group of Weather TEMPO 1717/1721 3SM -SHRA BR OVC003 Temporary Group of Weather FM180000 25005KT P6SM BKN015 FM181100 25004KT 3SM BR OVC009 Translated: KATL 17th of the month at 15:38 Zulu Report is from the 17th at 15:00 Zulu to the 18th at 18:00 Zulu Wind is from 210 degrees at 10 knots Visibility is 4 statute miles Showering rain and mist Ceilings are broken at 600 ft. and overcast at 2,500 ft. Low level wind shear at 2,000 ft. from 220 degrees at 40 knots Weather Change Indications: From the 17th at 17:00 Zulu - wind 210 degrees at 10 knots gusting 20 knots, visibility 4 statute miles, mist, cloud layer overcast at 1,000 ft. Temporarily from the 17th at 17:00 Zulu to the 17th at 21:00 Zulu, visibility 3 statute miles, light showering rain and mist, cloud layer overcast at 300 ft. From the 18th at 00:00 Zulu - wind 250 degrees at 5 knots, visibility greater than 6 statute miles, cloud layer broken broken at 1,500 ft. From the 18th at 11:00 Zulu - wind 250 degrees at 4 knots, visibility 3 statute miles, mist, cloud layer overcast at 900 ft. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 24 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 Other Codes in a TAF or METAR Intensity Symbols: Descriptor: Obscuration: “ - “ Light MI - Shallow BR - Mist “No Sign“ Moderate BL - Blowing SA - Sand “ + “ Heavy BC - Patches FG - Fog SH - Showers HZ - Haze Precipitation: PR - Partial FU - Smoke DZ - Drizzle DR - Drifting PY - Spray IC - Ice Crystals TS - Thunderstorm VA - Volcanic Ash RA - Rain FZ - Freezing DU - Widespread Dust PL - Ice Pellets Other: SN - Snow SQ - Squall GR - Hail FC - Funnel Cloud SG - Snow Grains SS - Sandstorm GS - Small hail/Snow pellets +FC - Tornado/Waterspout DU - Dust Storm PO - Well Developed Dust/Sand Swirls From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 25 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Phases of a Thunderstorm Cumulus Mature Dissipating Air that is warmer than its Characterized by the presence Downdrafts prominent in environment starts to rise. of both updrafts AND downdrafts. this phase. As the warm, moist air rises, The downdrafts cause Anvil top begins to weaken. it cools and condenses to form evaporative cooling. Towering cumulonimbus cumulus clouds. When the downdraft hits the clouds turn into wispy, Creates strong updrafts. ground, it has nowhere to go non-threatening clouds. so it spreads out in all directions. If the cloud reaches the Downdrafts of cool air freezing level, supercooled Anvil shape forms when water reduce temperature and water molecules form. molecules are pushed into the convection from below. higher parts of the cloud. Hail can be formed and intense cloud-to-ground lightning is present. Microburst Localized column of sinking air (downdraft) within a Wind Shear thunderstorm and is usually less than or equal to 2.5 miles A change in wind speed and/or direction over a in diameter. short distance. Winds can reach speeds of Causes headwind and tailwind change which quickly 100 mph or higher. alters the flight path of an airplane. Pilots should avoid these at Most dangerous at low levels near the ground. all costs. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 26 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Commercial Maneuvers Chandelles Execution ACS Standards A Entry - Establish a 30° bank angle. Simultaneously Establish bank angle of apply pitch and power to maintain a smooth, approximately 30° coordinated turn with constant bank and increasing Complete rollout at 180° point pitch. just above stall speed. B During the Maneuver - Begin a coordinated constant Roll out on specified heading +- 10° rate rollout. Maintain power and a constant pitch attitude that will allow the airspeed to decrease Perform maneuver no lower just above stall speed. than 1,500’ AGL C Completion - Complete the 180° turn, just above Stall speed, momentarily avoiding a stall. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 27 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Commercial Maneuvers Lazy Eights Execution ACS Standards A Entry - Power set for an airspeed at or below Approximately 30° bank at maneuvering speed and establish a gradual climbing the steepest point. turn toward the 45° point. Altitude +- 100’ at the 180° point. B Approaching the 90° point - Decrease pitch and increase Airspeed +- 10 kts at the 180° point. bank to maximum of 30° bank angle and slowest Heading +- 10° at the 180° point. airspeed. Perform maneuver no lower C Approaching the 135° point - Slowly roll out of the bank than 1,500’ AGL. while gradually lowering the nose to reach its lowest pitch attitude. Maintain coordination throughout D Arrive at the 180° point - Straight and level at the the maneuver. original heading, altitude and airspeed. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 28 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Commercial Maneuvers Steep Spirals Execution ACS Standards A Entry - Power idle and establish best glide airspeed. 3 complete 360° turns. Establish a constant radius circle around a selected Maximum allowable bank of 60° ground reference. Maintain specified airspeed +- 10° B During the maneuver - Apply wind drift correction to Complete maneuver no lower track a constant radius circle around the reference than 1,500’ AGL. point by adjusting bank angle. C Completion - After 3 complete turns, roll out toward an object or specified heading. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 29 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Commercial Maneuvers Eights on Pylons Execution ACS Standards A Entry - Fly a downwind 45° angle between the two Determine approximate pivotal selected pylons at the approximate pivotal altitude. altitude. 2 (Groundspeed ÷ 11.3) + MSL of ground reference B Bank onto the pylon - Roll into a 30° to 40° bank when abeam the first pylon. Select suitable pylons (distance between, orientation to the wind) C During the maneuver - Adjust pivotal altitude to maintain wingtip reference on the pylon. As groundspeed Bank angle not to exceed 40° decreases, so a descent will likely be required heading Apply corrections so that the back into the wind. After rolling out to straight and level line-of-sight reference line flight, repeat the same procedure on the opposite pylon. remains on the pylon. Divide attention between accurate, coordinated airplane control and outside visual reference. From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 30 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8  Terms and Definitions A/FD Airport/Facility Director Hg Mercury AAF Army Airfield HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator AC Advisory Circular IAP Instrument Approach Procedure ACL Aeronautical Chart Legend IFH Instrument Flying Handbook ADM Aeronautical Decision Making IFR Instrument Flight Rules AFB Air Force Base ILS Instrument Landing System AFH Airplane Flying Handbook IR Instrument Route AGL Above Ground Level ISA International Standard Atmosphere AIM Aeronautical Information Manual L/D Lift-to-drag ratio AIRMET Airman’s Meteorological Information L/D Max Maximum Lift-to-drag ratio AME Aviation Medical Examiner Mb Millibar ATC Air Traffic Control MB Magnetic Bearing ATCO Air Taxi/Commercial Operator MEF Maximum Elevation Figure AVW Aviation Weather METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report AWS Aviation Weather Service MH Magnetic Heading BHP Brake Horsepower MOA Military Operations Area CAT Clear Air Turbulence MSL Mean Sea Level CDI Course Deviation Indicator MTR Military Training Routes CFI Certificated Flight Instructor MVFR Marginal VFR CG Center of Gravity NAS National Airspace System DUATS Direct User Access Terminal NM Nautical Mile ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter NMAC Near Midair Collision ETE Estimated Time Enroute NOTAM Notice To Air Mission FA Area Forecast NTSB National Transportation Safety Board FAA Federal Aviation Administration OAT Outside Air Temperature FAR Federal Aviation Regulation OBS Omnibearing Selector FBO Fixed-Based Operator Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical FL Comp Flight Computer PHAK Knowledge FSDO Flight Standards District Office PIC Pilot In Command FSS Flight Service Station PIREP Pilot Weather Report GPH Gallons Per Hour PPH Pounds Per Hour From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 31 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8 RB Relative Bearing RMI Radio Magnetic Indicator RNAV Area Navigation SD Radar Weather Report SFC Surface Significant Meteorological SIGMET Information SL Sea Level SM Statute Miles ST Standard Temperature SVFR Special VFR TACAN Tactical Air Navigation TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast TAS True Airspeed Telephone Information TIBS Briefing Service TWEB Transcribed Weather Broadcast UTC Coordinated Universal Time VFR Visual Flight Rules VHF Very High Frequency Beyond Learning VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range www.GroundSchool.com VORTAC Colocated VOR and TACAN VOT VOR test facility WFO Weather Forecast Office From the library of www.GroundSchool.com Page 32 Copyright 2024, Atlanta Flight, Inc. V.1.0.8