Khan Academy Psychology - Self-Identity PDF

Individuals and Society Self-Identity Self Concept, Self Identity, and Social Identity  **Self-concept** aka Self Identity - is how someone thinks-about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness. o Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy (talked about in next video) o Development...

Individuals and Society Self-Identity Self Concept, Self Identity, and Social Identity  **Self-concept** aka Self Identity - is how someone thinks-about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness. o Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy (talked about in next video) o Development of self-concept has **2 parts**: first, an **existential** self and then a **categorical** self. o **Existential self** is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being **separate** and **distinct** from others. Awareness that the self is **constant**/consistent throughout life (Ex: if someone says they are "tired" that isn't them All the time. This is NOT their self-concept because self-concept is Consistent) § Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child as with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that. o **Categorical self** comes once baby realizes they're separate (comes after existential self)-- becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. Ex. **age** and **gender** are the first categories first babies learn, then **skills** and **size**. Then, as we grow older, compare ourselves with others -- **traits**, **comparisons**, **careers** (these are more developed categories) o **Carl Rogers** (Humanistic Theory), believed self-concept had 3 different components. § **Self-image**: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. § **Self-esteem/self-worth**: how much value we place on ourselves § **Ideal-self**: what we wish/aspire to be § When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive selfconcept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is **incongruity**. § Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence  We can use the **social identity theory** to develop self-concept further -- has 2 parts: **personal identity and social identity** o **Personal Identity:** things unique to each person like personality traits o **Social Identity:** includes the groups you belong too in our community. o Mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves/use social-identity theory. Process involved 3 steps. This process is used when we categorize 212 ourselves, others, and look at the relationship between personal and social identities. § **Step 1:** All humans **categorize** ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them ex. Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like *race* (black, white)negative outcomes, **avoid** challenging tasks, quickly **lose** confidence in personal abilities, and believe they **lack** the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (Acronym: **FALL, F=** 213 **failures, A= Avoid** challenging tasks, **L=lose** confidence, **L=Lack** ability to take on complex tasks) o Look at *4 sources* to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy: § 1. **Mastery of experience** -- strengthens self-efficacy § 2. **Social modeling** -- seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy § 3. **Social persuasion** -- when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. § 4. **Psychological responses** -- learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve selfefficacy  A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. o Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). Competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules.  **Locus of control** -- the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives. o **Internal** - when person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes. Events/Results come primarily from their own actions. \[Ex. If someone w/ internal locus of control did bad on a test; they attribute outcome to not studying or if they did well based on their ability to study). § People w/ internal locus of control feel like they control their own destiny. Tend to be happier, less depressed, less stressed. o **External** -- attribute events to environmental events/causes (If someone with external locus of control does bad on a test they attribute to hard test questions, and if they do well on a test they attribute it to the teacher being lenient/they were lucky). Overview of Theories of Development  The theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. Develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order.  Freud -- Proposed the **psychosexual theory** of development. o Believed early **childhood** was the most important age/period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by age of 5. Early experiences play a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life. o **5 stages** -- if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then **fixation occurs.**  Erikson -- **Psychosocial development theory**. o Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire **lifespan**. o Each stage depends on overcoming a **conflict,** and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 214 o **8 stages**  Vygotsky -- **Sociocultural Cognitive development theory** o Believed children learned **actively** through **hands-on** processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. o Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important development of cognition.  Kohlberg -- **Moral development theory** o Focussed on **moral reasoning** and difference between right and wrong. o Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through **3 stages** of development (each with 2 stages) **-- 6 levels total** § Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.  In general, Freud and Erikson were interested in how personality develops, and Vygotsky and Kohlberg were interested in how cognition develops Freud's Psychosexual Development  Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure -- the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts.  **Fixation** was due to concept of **libido** -- a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when libido energy is fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development.  First **5 years** of life are crucial in development of personality.  Mnemonic -- OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES or OLD AGE PENSIONERS LOVE GRAPES/GENITALS or ORANGANTANGES ALWAYS PLAY with LITTLE GORILLAS 215 o Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital  Depending on what stage we're at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part. o For oral stage -- focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.  **Oral stage** -- age 0-1 yrs., libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex), vital for sucking/eating. Infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking). Because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. o If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumb, people who overeat.  **Anal stage** -- age 1-3, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. Serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. o If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.  **Phallic stage** -- age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Oedipus complex also develops -- boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. Describes feeling of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father. Electra complex (by Carl-Jung) is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. o If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism  **Latent period** -- no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. o Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.  **Genital stage** -- back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation -- person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring) 216 Erikson's Psychosocial Development - (Note the acronyms are from psychfiles and are a stretch)  Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society  Another key difference between his and Freud's theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life (not just childhood).  Assumed a **crisis** can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality. o Virtues are characteristic strengths that can be used by ego to resolve future conflicts o Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages or unhealthy personality/sense of self.  ACRONYM: 1 is bun , 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is dinosaur, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, 8 is plate. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2HRFhMFMlg  **Stage 1** -- 0-1 yrs., crisis is trust vs. mistrust. (ACRONYM: BUN IS RUSTed) If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. o Virtue is **hope** o And failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust.  **Stage 2** -- 1-3 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. (ACRONYM: Shoe shaped Car driven by doubtful SHA\[N\]E). Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. o Virtue achieved is **will** (independence). o Negative outcome: If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame/doubt in abilities.  **Stage 3** -- 3-6 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. (ACRONYM: Tree with an INN in it and a \[Q\]uilt around it) Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. 217 o Virtue they reach is a sense of **purpose** in what they do and choices/decisions they make. o Negative outcome: If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt -- as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. Some guilt is necessary so child can have self-control.  **Stage 4** -- age 6-12. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Crisis is **industry vs. inferiority (**ACRONYM: Dinosaur with dust on him feeling inferior). o Virtue: Child will gain greater significance and greater self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Competence. Will feel industrious, o Negative outcome: but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior (don't have competence). Some failure is necessary/ good though, so child has modesty.  **Stage 5** -- age 12-20, adolescence. Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society -- **identity vs. role** **confusion (**ACRONYM: Skydiver dents his head on the ground when falling and then has confusion). In this stage, the child has to learn rules he needs to occupy as an adult, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. o Virtue is **fidelity**, seeing oneself as unique. o Failure: Role-confusion ( I don't know what I want to be when I grow up). Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.  **Stage 6** -- **intimacy vs. isolation.** (ACRONYM: : Sticks being intimate and one being isolated). Age 20-40. Try to find love and relationships. o Virtue: Completion leads to comfortable relationships, love. o Negative outcomes: avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression.  **Stage 7** -- age 40-65 (Middle adult-hood), established career, so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture. **Generativity** **vs. stagnation** (ACRONYM: GENERator powering heaven, a STAG powering the generator for the NATIONS heaven). o Positive virtue: Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities/organizations, so develop sense of care for others. o Negative outcome: is they feel stagnate and unproductive.  **Stage 8** -- 65+, slowing in productivity. Crisis is **integrity vs. despair**. (ACRONYM: plate with inteGRIT and a pear). Stage where people contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilty about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. o Virtue is wisdom -look back on life with sense of closure/completeness and accept death wthout fear o but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death. 218  Each of stages involve culture and society of which we develop in and occurs throughout life. Vygotsky Sociocultural Development  Studied the role social interaction plays in development of **cognition**.  Focussed on **social interactions** between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning.  Passed away early (38 y/o), so much of his theory was left unfinished.  Said babies have 4 *elementary mental functions:* o **Attention, sensation, perception, and memory** (acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS)  These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes -- **higher mental functions**. Most develop from skillful "tutor" -- a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it. o *Higher Mental Functions:* **Independent** learning and thinking o Ex: solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and the second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own. o Higher mental functions cultivated by tutor from who we model our behavior.  Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions): o 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a **MKO** (**more** **knowledgeable other**) -- a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO à Learning + Higher M.F (Independence) o 2. **Zone of proximal development --** part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do 219 something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do. § Ex: Puzzle example: Not being able to solve puzzle to being able to solve puzzle. The guidance in this zone which allowed for the transition from a set of skills you already had to a more expanded skills through learning. o 3. **Language** -- the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves -- happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding. § Those children who engage in lots of private speech are more socially competent. Language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Language leads to (à) thought (inner speech) - think for ourselves/independence of executing skills. Kohlberg Moral Development  Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on **cognitive** development similar to Vygotsy. Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow (instead of emotional/physical development) 220  Also looked at children (common). He told stories to children and gauged their response.  Most famous story was the **Heinz Dilemma**, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered made my local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. After asking family, he only had half the money, and explained to chemist his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug for cheaper/pay the chemist at a later date. Chemist refused. Heinz, desperate to save his wife, then broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. o Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. o After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2 for a total of 6 stages.  Three Levels of Moral Reasoning. Each have 2 sub-parts. Three level Acronym = (**PCP** Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-Conventional).  1. **Pre-Conventional** (pre-adolescent) (ACRONYM: PREacher smacking oBEEdience with a Fish (self-interest) o 1. Obedience vs. Punishment -- reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment. § Age: Children. o 2. Individualism and Exchange or SELF-Interest -- recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain. 2\. **Conventional** (ACRONYM: CONvict named Norm (Societal Norms -- Good Girl/Bad Girl) behind bars (Law-and-order) o 3. Societal Norms /Acceptance- Good Boy and Good Girl - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval" o 4. Law and Order / Law abidance -- maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. "to follow rules"  3. **Post-Conventional** (moral) (ACRONYM: POSTman delivering a contract (social contract) and Universal today (Universal principles). Higher moral reasoning. o 5. Social Contract -- Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. Sometimes law must be broken to reach these principles. o 6. Universal Ethical Principle -- people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. Very few people 221 who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King. "to promote social welfare"